tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-23564661749494274722023-11-16T10:27:39.022-08:00Mira Nurlatifah :)I'm are a one of luckiest girl in the world..Mira Nurlatifahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12863922507205527729noreply@blogger.comBlogger10125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2356466174949427472.post-44419623567088118272013-06-23T21:08:00.000-07:002013-06-23T21:08:41.927-07:00Konsep Dasar Antropologi<!--[if !mso]>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Antropologi
berasal dari bahasa Yunani, Antropologi terdiri dari 2 suku kata yaitu <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Anthropos</i> dan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Logos</i>. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Anthropos </i>berarti
manusia dan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Logos</i> berarti ilmu, jadi
secara etimologi Antopologi berarti ilmu yang mempelajari mengenai manusia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tujuan
mempelajari Antroplogi adalah:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Agar dapat
mendefinisikan kebudayaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Memberikan contoh wujud
kebudayaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjelaskan
unsure-unsur kebudayaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjelaskan budaya
Indonesia yang majemuk.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjelaskan upaya-upaya
pelestarian kebudayaan asli Indonesia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi
Kebudayaan</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Apabila
kita bertanya apakah yang membedakan manusia dengan hewan atau binatang secara
fundamental maka jawabannya adalah <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">manusia
mampu berbudaya</i>, sedangkan hewan tidak. Apa yang dimaksud dengan
kebudayaan? Ahli Antropologi yang mengkaji tentang kebudayaan itu dan mencoba
menerangkannya atau setidak-setidaknya telah menyusun definisinya. Sebelum kita
mengemukakan beberapa definisi atau pengertian yang disampaikan oleh para ahli,
kita harus mengetahui asal-usul kata kebudayaan tersebut. Dilihat dari
asal-usul kata kebudayaan berasal dari bahasa <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sansekerta</i> yaitu <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Budhi</i>
yang berarti akal/ide dan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Daya</i> yang
berarti usaha/bentuk.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Diantara
para ahli tersebut ada dua sarjana Antropologi, yaitu A.L Kroeber dan C.
Kluckhohn yang mencoba mengumpulkan sebanyak mungkin definisi kebudayaan. Dari
hasil penyelidikannya diterbitkan diterbitkan sebuah buku yang bernama <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Culture, A Critical Review of Concept and
Definition</i>, menurut A. L. Kroeber dan C. Kluckhohn definisi kebudayaan
dapat diklasifikasikan kedalam beberapa tipe yaitu kebudayaan sebagai tingkah
laku yang dipelajari sampai ke tradisi-tradisi, alat-alat untuk memecahkan
masalah, produk atau artefak, ide-ide simbol.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Adapun
ahli Anropologi yang pertama-tama merumuskan definisi kebudayaan adalah: </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">E.
B. Taylor (1874)</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">, yang menulis dalam bukunya “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Primitive Culture”</i>, yaitu:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">”Kebudayaan itu
adalah keseluruhan yang kompleks, yang didalamnya terkandung ilmu pengetahuan,
kepercayaan, kesenian, moral, hukum, adat istiadat dan kemampuan yang lain
serta kebiasaan yang didapat oleh manusia sebagai anggota masyarakat.”</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">R.
Linton</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> dalam bukunya “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Culture Background of Personality”</i> (1947), menyatakan bahwa
kebudayaan adalah:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">“Konfigurasi
tingkah laku yang dipelajari dan hasil tingkah laku yang unsure pembentukannya
didukung dan diteruskan oleh anggota masyarakat tertentu”.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Koentjaraningrat
(1990)</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">, menyatakan bahwa kebudayaan adalah:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">”Keseluruhan
sistem gagasan, tindakan, dan hasil karya manusia dalam rangka kehidupan
masyarakat yang dijadikan milik diri manusia dengan belajar”.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Selo
Soemardjan dan Soelaeman Soemardi (1967)</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">,
menyatakan bahwa kebudayaan adalah:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">“Semua hasil
karya, rasa dan cipta masyarakat”.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Soekmono</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
dalam bukunya “Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan 1” (1973), mengatakan bahwa
kebudayaan adalah:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">“Segala cipta
manusia dalam usahanya merubah dan memberi bentuk dan susunan baru terhadap
pemberian Tuhan sesuai dengan kebutuhan jasmani dan rohaninya”.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Parsudi
Suparlan (1981)</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">, mengatakan bahwa kebudayaan:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">“Merupakan
keseluruhan pengetahuan manusia sebagai mahluk social yang dimanipulasikan
untuk menginterpretasi dan memahami lingkungan yang dihadapi dan untuk
menciptakan serta mendorong terciptanya kelakuan”.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Suhandi
(1994)</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">, memiliki cirri-ciri umum yaitu:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2.0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan dipelajari.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2.0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan diwariskan
atau diteruskan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2.0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan hidup dalam
masyarakat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2.0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan dikembangkan
dan berubah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2.0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan itu
terintegrasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sifat hakikat dari
kebudayaan ini menurut <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Willams dan
Soekanto (1986)</b>, sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan
terwujud dan tersalurkan dari prilaku manusia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan
telah ada terlebih dahulu daripada lahirnya suatu generasi tertentu, dan tidak
akan mati dengan habisnya usia generasi yang bersangkutan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan
diperlukan ileh manusia dan diwujudkan dalam tingkah lakunya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan
mencakup aturan-aturan yang berisikan kewajiban-kewajiban, tindakan-tindakan
yang diterima dan ditolak, tindakan-tindakan yang dilarang dan diizinkan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan ini dapat
berwujud idea atau gagasan, norma-norma atau peraturan, dan aktivitas sosial
maupun wujud kebendaan. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Koentjaraningrat
(1990 : 186-187)</b>, melakukan pembagian wujud kebudayaan sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Wujud
kebudayaan sebagai suatu kompleks dari ide-ide, gagasan, nilai-nilai,
norma-norma, peraturan. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Wujud kebudayaan
ini bersifat abstrak, tidak dapat diraba</b>. Lokasinya ada didalam kepala,
atau dengan perkataan lain ada dalam alam pikiran dari manusia dimana
kebudayaan yang bersangkutan itu hidup. Para Ahli Antropologi menyebutkan
sistem ini sistem atau <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“Cultural System”</i>.
Dalam bahasa Indonesia sering disebut <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">adat</i>
atau <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">adat istiadat</i> untuk bentuk
jamaknya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Wujud
kebudayaan sebagai suatu kompleks aktifitas serta tindakan dari kelompok
manusia. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Wujud kedua dari kebudayaan
sering disebut sistem sosial</b>, sistem sosial ini terdiri dari
aktivitas-aktivitas manusia-manusia yang berinteraksi, berhubungan, serta
bergaul sama yang lain, yang dari detik ke detik, dari hari ke hari dan tahun
ke tahun selalu mengikuti pola-pola tertentu yang berdasarkan adat tata
kelakuan. System Sosial itu bersifat konkret, terjadi disekeliling kita sehari-hari,
bias diobservasi, difoto dan di dokumentasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Wujud
kebudayaan sebagai benda-benda hasil karya manusia. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Wujud ketiga dari kebudayaan disebut kebudayaan fisik</b>. Oleh karena
itu merupakan seluruh total dari hasil fisik dari aktivitas, perbuatan dan
karya semua manusia dalam masyarakat, sifatnya paling konkret, dan berupa
benda-benda atau hal-hal yang dapat diraba, dilihat dan difoto.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Unsur-Unsur
Kebudayaan</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menurut C. Kluckhohn
yang dikutip Koentjaraningrat (1990: 203-204), terdapat 7 unsur Kebudayaan:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bahasa.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kemampuan
berbahsa adalah cirri khas dari mahluk yang namanya manusia.
Kebutuhan-kebutuhan akan kemampuan berbahasa sejalan dengan kebutuhan akan
interaksi sosial. Interaksi sosial disini tidak hanya interaksi antar individu
dalam kelompok, tetapi juga dalam kelompok lain. Oleh karena itu, bahasa alat
komunikasi yang mempunyai kaitan erat dengan proses perubahan masyarakat dan
kebudayaan. Masyarakat Indonesia adalah masyarakat yang majemuk yang terdiri
dari berbagai suku bangsa yang mendukung kebudayaan daerahnya masing-masing,
serta bahasa daerah masing-masing, menunjukkan keaneka ragaman, namun juga
menunjukkan kebudayaan kekayaan budaya dan bahasa bangsa Indonesia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bahasa dibedakan
atas berikut ini:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bahasa
isyarat, misalnya bunyi keuntungan, gerakan tangan, anggukan atau gelengan
kepala dan isyarat lainnya yang diterima berdasarkan kesepakatan suatu
masyarakat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bahasa
lisan yang diucapkan oleh mulut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bahasa
tulisan melalui buku, gambar, surat dan koran.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 39.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sistem Pengetahuan.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
Pengetahuan merupakan salah satu unsur kebudayaan universal yang dpat ditemukan
dalam semua kebudayaan dari semua bangsa yang ada dimuka bumi ini. Sistem
Pengetahuan itu mencakup semua pengetahuan yang dimiliki anggota suatu
masyarakat tentang alam, tumbuhan, binatang, ruang dan waktu, suku bangsa atau
bangsa yang bersangkutan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
pengetahuan itu timbul akibat kebutuhan-kebutuhan praktis dan berdasarkan
pengalaman-pengalaman yang diperoleh manusia didalam kehidupan sehari-hari,
serta digunakan oleh manusia untuk keperluan praktis seperti untuk bercocok
tanam, berburu, berlayar dan lain-lain. System pengetahuan biasanya erat
kaitannya dengan seluruh aktivitas manusia dalam kehidupannya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Organisasi
Sosial.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam tiap
masyarakat, kehidupan masyarakat diorganisasi atau diatur oleh adat istiadat
dan aturan-aturan mengenai berbagai kesatuan didalam lingkungan dimana ia hidup
dan bergaul. Kesatuan social yang paling dekat dan mesra adalah kesatuan
kerabatnya, yaitu keluarga inti (nuclear family).</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Keluarga
merupakan unit terkecil dari masyarakat sebagai satu kesatuan. Dalam system
social terdapat pengaturan tentang perkawinan, tempat tinggal dan system
kekerabatan keluarga mengatur jaringan social antara individu berdasarkan
perkawinan (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">affinity</i>) dan hubungan
berdasarkan keturunan darah (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">consanguity</i>)
perkawinan akan menghasilkan keluarga inti (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nuclear
family</i>). Pada setiap masyarakat mempunyai aturan tentang dengan siapa
anggotanya boleh dan tidak boleh melangsungkan perkawinan. Ada dua macam
perkawinan yaitu <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">endogamy </i>dan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">eksogami,</i> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Endogami</b> adalah <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kebiasaan
masyarakat yang mengharuskan anggotanya kawin dengan yang masih kerabatnya
sendiri atau kelompoknya.</i>. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Eksogami</b>
adalah <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kebiasaan masyarakat yang
mengharuskan anggotanya kawin dengan orang yang berasal dari luar kerabatnya
atau luar kelompoknya</i>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam ketentuan
endogami biasanya dihindari terjadinya suatu perkawinan antar anggota kerabat
yang sangat dekat hubungan atau pertalian darahnya. Sebab kalau tidak, dapat
menimbulkan perkawinan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">incest </i>atau <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tabu incest</i>. Dalam ketentuan endogami
pada beberapa suku bangsa membolehkan perkawinan sepupu bersilang atau <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">cross cousin</i>, dan pekawinan sepupu
sejajar atau <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">parallel cousin</i> akan
tetapi, ada beberapa suku menghendaki perkawinan antara sepupu bersilang dan
melarang perkawinan sepupu sejajar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.3pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bagan Perkawinan Sepupu Silang (cross cousin)</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-ignore: vglayout;">
</span></div>
<table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tbody>
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<td height="20" width="64"><br /></td>
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<td><br /></td>
<td><br /></td>
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</tbody></table>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br />
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<img alt="" 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" /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Keluarga
luas (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">extended family</i>) adalah
gabungan dari dua keluarga inti atau lebih. Berarti ada penambahan anggota
keluarga orang lain, misalnya anak yang sudah menikah, tetapi masih tinggal
dengan orang tuanya. Beberapa masyarakat ada yang memperbolehkan anggotanya
melakukan perkawinan ganda atau poligami.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Poligami
adalah mempunyai istri atau suami yang lebih dari satu. Poligami akan membentuk
dua keluarga inti atau lebih atau tergantung kepada banyaknya istri.
Penelusuran untuk mengetahui kerabat mana yang masih dekat dan kerabat mana
yang jauh serta untuk melangsungkan hak-hak dan kewajiban kelompok kerabat itu
erat hubungannya dengan kebiasaan cara menarik garis keturunan. Cara menarik
garis keturunan tersebut, antara lain berikut ini:</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Unilineal,
keturunan ditelusuri melalui satu garis keturunan saja, melalui ayah atau ibu.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Matrilineal:
Garis keturunan berdasarkan kekerabatan dari Ibu, contoh suku minangkabau.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Patrilineal:
Garis keturunan berdasarka kekerabatan dari bapak, contoh suku batak.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bilineal,
garis keturunan ditelusuri dari garis ibu dan ayah secara bersama-sama. Contoh
suku Sunda, Jawa dan Bali.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
kekerabatan yang bersifat unilineal dan masih dapat ditelusuri ikatan darahnya
oleh individu (ego) disebut <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">lineage</i>.
Sedangkan mereka yang masih menganggap satu garis keturunan, tetapi sudah tidak
dapat ditelusuri lagi disebut <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">marga</i>.
Dalam membahas organisasi social, para antroplog juga banyak menaruh perhatian
terhadap organisasi dan susunan masyarakat komunitas desa dan komunitas kecil.
Hal-hal yang mendapat banyak perhatian adalah pembagian kerja, berbagai
aktivitas kerjasama atau gotong royong hubungan antar sikap dan pengikut,
cara-cara penggantian pimpinan dan masalah wewenang serta kekuasaan pemimpin.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
Peralatan Hidup dan Teknologi.</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dalam kehidupan, manusia tidak lepas dari
adanya teknologi. Artinya, bahwa teknologi merupakan keseluruhan cara yang
secara rasional mengarah pada cirri efisiensi dalam setiap kegiatan manusia. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Anglin </b>mendefinisikan teknologi sebagai
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">penerapan ilmu-ilmu perilaku dan alam
serta pengetahuan lain secara bersistem dan untuk memecahkan masalah</i>. Ahli
lain, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Kast dan Rosenweig</b> menyatakan
“<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Technology is the Art of Utilizing
Scientific Knowledge</i>”, sedangkan <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Iskandar
Alisyahbana (1980:1)</b> merumuskan lebih jelas dan lengkap mengenai teknologi
yaitu “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Teknologi ialah cara melakukan
sesuatu untuk memenuhi kebutuhan manusia dengan bantuan alat dan akal sehingga
seakan-akan memperpanjang, memperkuat atau membuat lebih ampuh anggota tubuh,
panca indra dan otak manusia</i>”.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Teknologi
tradisional mengenal paling sedikit delapan macam system peralatan dan unsur
kebudayaan fisik yang dipakai oleh manusia, yaitu: (a) alat-alat produktif, (b)
senjata, (c) wadah, (d) alat-alat menyalakan api, (e) makanan, minuman, bahan
pembangkit gairah dan jamu-jamuan, (f) pakaian dan perhiasan, (g) tempat
berlindung dan (h) alat transportasi.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
Mata Pencaharian Hidup.</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Perhatian
para ahli Antroplogi terhadap berbagai macam system pencaharian atau system
ekonomi pada awalnya hanya terbatas kepada system yang bersifat tradisional,
terutama dalam rangka perhatian mereka terhadap kebudayaan suatu suku bangsa
secara <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">holistik</i>. Berbagai system
tersebut adalah berburu dan meramu, berternak, becocok tanam di lading,
menangkap ikan, dan bercocok tanam menetap dengan irigasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem ekonomi dapat
dibagi atas berikut ini:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Masyarakat
pemburu dan meramu (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">food gathering
economics</i>).</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ciri-cirinya
hidup berpindah-pindah tempat, ketergantungan terhadap alam tinggi, hidup dalam
kelompok kecil, peralatan yang diupergunakan sederhana, perbedaan sosial
berdasarkan perbedaan jenis kelamin dan usia, pemilikan barang bersama (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">communal</i>) dan biasanya bersifat <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">eksogamuos</i> (perkawinan dengan anggota
diluar kelompoknya).</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pertanian
berpindah-pindah atau berladang (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">primitive
farming</i>).</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mereka sudah mengenal pembudi dayaan
tumbuhan walaupun masih mengandalkan hujan sebagai sumber pengairan, belum
mengenal pupuk atau pemilihan benih, lahan pertanian dipilih dekat sumber air.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pertanian
intensive (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Intensive farming</i>).</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hidup menetap (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sidenter</i>), sudah mempergunakan alat bantu hewan, sudah mengenal
pemeliharaan tanaman, irigasi, usaha peningkatan kesuburan lahan dan pemilihan
benih.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Industir
(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">manufacturing</i>).</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Industri dicirikan dengan menggunakan
mesin-mesin mulai yang sederhana sampai yang modern. </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Alokasi tenaga kerja ada beberapa jenis,
diantaranya adalah:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sukarela.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Paksaan
atau perbudakan.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
gajih atau upah melalui perjanjian.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pendistribusi hasil produksi ada tiga
macam, yaitu:</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Barter
atau Tukar menukar barang</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">, terdapat pada
masyarakat pemburu dan meramu. Dalam pertukaran ini tidak melihat nilai barang,
yang penting kebutuhan terpenuhi. Dalam antroplogi disebut juga <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">reciprocity</i>, yaitu pemberian yang
menharapkan balasan dalam bentuk barang yang berbeda satu sama lainnya, dalam
waktu yang berbeda pula.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Redistribusi</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">,
barang-barang prosuksi dikumpulkan oleh seseorang atau sekelompok orang
berwenang, kemudian dibagikan lagi. Terjadi pada masyarakat yang modern,
seperti pajak.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
pasar</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">, yaitu proses menjual dan membeli
barang di suatu tempat dengan menggunakan alat tukar yang disebut uang. System
pasar ini di duga mulai timbul pada masyarakat bertani menetap.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pertukaran jasa timbul dari
adanya keterbatasan manusia untuk memproduksi semua barang yang dibutuhkan.
Sejak dikenalnya pertanian menetap di duga mulai timbul spesialisasi pekerjaan.
Pada saat pertanian menetap, sudah mengenal adanya surplus atau kelebihan
produksi. Dalam proses perdangan juga tidak langsung, tetapi sudah dilakukan
oleh orang yang memiliki keahlian dagang. Transportasi dan komunikasi
diperlukan, maka akan timbul orang-orang yang memiliki keahlian dibidang
tersebut. Pertukaran dan hubungan antar masyarakat tidak hanya dalam satu
tempat, tetapi antar wilayah dan antar Negara.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
Religi.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada hakekatnya unsure
kebudayaan yang disebut religi adalah amat kompleks, dan berkembang di berbagai
tempat di dunia, yang dimaksud system religi disini adalah system kepercayaan
yang timbul di masyarakat disebabkan oleh adanya suatu kekuatan diluar nalar
manusia tersebut, seperti adanya kekuatan yang menyebabkan meletusnya gunung,
gempa dan lain-lain, yang kesemua fenomena tersebut awalnya diluar nalar
manusia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sungguhpun demikian,
kalau kita tinjau sebanyak mungkin bentuk religi dari sebanyak mungkin suku
bangsa di dunia maka akan tampak adanya 4 unsur pokok dari religi pada umumnya,
ialah:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Emosi
keagamaan atau getaran jiwa yang menyebabkan manusia menjalankan kelakuan
religi. </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">System
kepercayaan atau bayangan-bayangan manusia tentang bentuk dunia, alam ghaib, hidup,
mati, surga, neraka.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
upacara keagamaan yang bertujuan mencari hubungan dengan dunia gaib berdasarkan
atas sistem kepercayaan tersebut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kelompok
keagamaan atau kesatuan-kesatuan sosial yang mengkosepsikan dan mengaktifkan
religi bserta sistem upacara-upacara keagamaannya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Para ahli antropologi,
terutama yang berasal dari abad ke-19 dan ke-20, sampai kira-kira menjelang
zaman perang dunia ke-II, dalam hal membicarakan gejala religi sering mengupas
berbagai bentuk macam religi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Agama, sebagaimana halnya
kebudayaan, terdiri dari pola-pola sistematis dari keyakinan, nilai dan
perilaku yang diperoleh manusia sebagai anggota masyarakat (Fedyani, 1992: 2). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sungguhpun demikian, agama dan kebudayaan itu
berbeda. Agama, seperti yang diyakini oleh pendukungnya berasal dari Tuhan,
sedangkan kebudayaan berasal dan sepenuhnya bersandar pada manusia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Koentjaraningrat</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
(1992: 230), mendefinisikan bahwa agama adalah suatu sikap hidup yang membuat
orang mampu mengatasi kesulitan sebagai manusia, dengan memberikan jawaban yang
memberikan kepuasan spiritual pada pernyataan mendasar tentang teka-teki alam
semesta dan peranan manusia didalamnya, dengan memberikan ajaran praktis untuk
hidup dialam semesta.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Anthony
F.C. Wallace </span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(Koentjaraningrat, 1987: 68),
Mengatakan bahwa agama merupakan seperangkat upacara yang diberi mitos-mitos,
dan menggerakan kekuatan-kekuatan supranatural dengan tujuan untuk mencapai
sesuatu, atau yang merugikan pada kondisi manusia dan alam.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Moenawir
Cholil</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> (1970: 19), dalam buku yang berjudul “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Definisi dan Sendi Agama</i>” berpendapat
bahwa perkataan agama terdiri dari bahasa sansekerta yang terdiri dari dua kata
“A” yang berarti “tidak” dan “Gama” yang berarti “kocar-kacir, kacau atau
berantakan”.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Endang
Saifudin Ashari</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> (1983: 9), memberikan pengertian
tentang agama, yaitu sebagai berikut:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">”Agama, religi, dien (pada umumnya)
adalah suatu system <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">credo</i> (tata
keyakinan atau tata keimanan). Atas adanya suatu yang mutlak diluar manusia dan
suatu system ritus (tata pribadatan manusia) yang dianggapnya mutlak, serta
norma (tata kaidah) yang menyatakan hubungan manusia dengan manusia dengan alam
launnya, sesuai dengan jalan tata keimanan dan tata peribatan termaksud”.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kesenian.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kesenian merupakan unsur
kebudayaan universal yang sudah pasti akan didapatkan pada semua kebudayaan,
semua bangsa yang hidup dimuka bumi ini. Baik bangsa yang hidup terpencil,
maupun bangsa-bangsa yang sudah maju. Demikian juga bangsa Indonesia merupakan
masyarakat yang majemuk yang terdiri dari beberapa suku bangsa dan mendukung
kebudayaan yang berbeda-beda itu tampak bahwa setiap suku bangsa itu
mengembangkan bentuk-bentuk dan jenis-jenis kesenian yang beraneka ragam.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kesenian sebagai salah
satu unsur kebudayaan, khususnya dalam kehidupan suku bangsa-suku bangsa di
Indonesia tidak dapat dipisahkan dengan aktivitas kehidupan lainnya, baik
kehidupan spiritual, upacara religi dan adat, maupun aktivitas lainnya, seperti
akivitas bercocok tanam, mendirikan rumah, dan menghormati serta menjamu tamu.
Kesenian sering diartikan sebagai sarana atau alat mencurahkan perasaan
keindahan manusia.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bagan Kerangka Kesenian menurut
Koentjaraningrat.</span></div>
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<span style="height: 225px; left: 0px; margin-left: 402px; margin-top: 6px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 48px; z-index: 251668480;"><img height="225" src="file:///C:\Users\MRUSER~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image017.gif" width="48" /></span><span style="height: 87px; left: 0px; margin-left: 238px; margin-top: 6px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 49px; z-index: 251666432;"><img height="87" src="file:///C:\Users\MRUSER~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image018.gif" width="49" /></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Seni
rupa : 1. Seni patung.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Seni Relif.<span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span> Seni Tari</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Seni lukis dangambar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>4. Seni rias.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="height: 2px; left: 0px; margin-left: 448px; margin-top: 8px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 38px; z-index: 251669504;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:\Users\MRUSER~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image019.gif" width="38" /></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 10;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Seni
drama</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Seni Suara : 1. Seni vocal.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="height: 59px; left: 0px; margin-left: 204px; margin-top: 7px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 100px; z-index: 251667456;"><img height="59" src="file:///C:\Users\MRUSER~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image020.gif" width="100" /></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Seni instrumental.<span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Prosa</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Seni sastra.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 6;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Puisi</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Perkembangan
Kebudayaan</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan adalah semua
hasil pengetahuan dan ciptaan manusia yang diperoleh dari belajar. Aspek
kebudayaan dapat hilang apabila kurang memberikan manfaat bagi kehidupan
manusia dan diganti oleh aspek lain yang lebih berdaya guna. Sebaliknya
aspeklain dapat bertambah sesuai dengan perkembangan kebutuhan manusia.perbuhan
kebudayaan ini bias disebabkan oleh faktor internal dan eksternal dari
masyarakat itu sendiri.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Faktor yang disebabkan oleh internal:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya
kejenuhan atau ketidak puasan individu terhadap system nilai yang berlaku dalam
masyarakat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya
individu yang menyimpang dari system yang berlaku.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya
penemuan-penemuan baru (inovasi) yang diterima oleh anggota masyarakat dan
membawa perubahan kebudayaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo14; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya
perubahan dalam jumlah dan komposisi penduduk.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Faktor yang disebabkan oleh eksternal:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo15; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bencana
alam: gunung meletus, banjir, gempa dan lain-lain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo15; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Peperangan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo15; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kontak
dengan masyarakat lain yang berbeda kebudayaan (pengaruh kebudayaan dari luar).</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Penjalaran, penyebaran
unsur-unsur kebudayaan dari satu kelompok ke kelompok lain disebut <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">difusi</i>. Bersamaan dengan penyebaran dan
migrasi kelompok-kelompok manusia di muka bumi, turut pula tersebar unsur-unsur
kebudayaan keseluruh penjuru dunia yang disebut proses <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">difusi</i>. Salah satu bentuk proses ini adalah penyebaran unsur-unsur kebudayaan
dari satu kelompok ke kelompok lain ayau dari satu daerah ke daerah lain yang
dibawa oleh sekelompok manusia yang bermigrasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Difusi dapat terjadi apabila:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya
kontak atau hubungan yang intensif antara dua kelompok yang berbeda budaya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tersedianya
sarana komunikasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya
rangsangan kedua belah pihak akan kebutuhan unsure baru.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya
kesediaan mental kedua belah pihak untuk menerima unsur baru.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l15 level1 lfo16; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya
kesiapan keterampilan untuk menerima unsur baru.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ada 3 bentuk difusi:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Difusi
Ekspansi: suatu proses dimana informasi menjalar melalui suatu sarana seperti
internet, televise dan lain-lain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo17; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Difusi
Relokasi: informasi atau materi pindah meninggalkan daerah asal ke daerah baru,
seperti transmigrasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo17; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Difusi
Cascadae: pelajaran melalui tingkatan, dari atas kebawah disebut <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">top down</i>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Apabila hubungan antara
dua kelompok masyarakat yang berbeda kebudayaannya terus-menerus, terjadi
saling toleransi, saling menghargai dan bersifat terbuka antar kedua belah
pihak, maka lambat laun dua kebudayaan itu berbaur, saling menerima dan
mengolah kebudayaan asing itu menjadi kebudayaan sendiri, hal ini disebut <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Akulturasi.</i></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Akulturasi timbul jika
suatu kelompok manusia dengan suatu kebudayaan tertentu dihadapkan dengan unsur
dari suatu kebudayaan asing dengan sedemikian rupa sehingga unsur-unsur
kebudayaan asing itu lambat laun diterima dan diolah ke dalam kebudayaan sendiri
tanpa menyebabkan hilangnya kepribadian kebudayaan sendiri. Syarat utama
terjadinya akulturasi adalah adanya kontak sosial dan komunikasi. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan asing akan relative mudah
diterima apabila:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tidak
adanya hambatan geografis, seperti daerah bergunung relative akan sukar
dijangkau, sehingga kontak dengan masyarakat luar akan sukar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan
yang datang memberikan manfaat lebih besar apabila dibandingkan dengan unsure
kebudayaan baru.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya
persamaan dengan unsur kebudayaan lama.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya
kesiapan pengetahuan dan keterampilan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo18; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebudayaan
yang datang bersifat kebendaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Asimilasi
</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">timbul jika ada golongan-golongan
manusia dengan latar belakang kebudayaan yang betbeda-beda saling bergaul
langsung secara intensif untuk jangka waktu yang lama sehingga kebudayaan tadi
masing-masing berubah sifat khasnya dan juga unsur-unsurnya berubah menjadi<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>unsur-unsur kebudayaan campuran.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 21.3pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Keaneka
Ragaman Budaya Indonesia</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Banyak orang bicara
tentang kebudayaan. Di lain pihak orang menggunakan istilah kebudayaan untuk menyatakan
cirri-ciri yang nampak pada sekeompok anggota masyarakat tertentu sehingga
dapat dipergunakan untuk membedakan dengan kelompoik masyarakat yang lain. Ada
pula yang menggunakan istilah kebudayaan untuk menyatakan tingkat kemajuan
yeknologi yang didukung oleh tradisi tertentu untuk membedakan kebudayaan yang
belum banyak menggunakan peralatan mesin dan teknologinya masih terbelakang.
Timbul pertanyaan apakah sesungguhnya yang dimaksud dengan kebudayaan apabila
orang membicarakan tentang kebudayaan Indonesia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Satu hal yang pasti,
kebudayaan adalah hasil karya manusia dalam usahanya mempertahankan hidup,
mengembangkan keturunan dan meningkatkan taraf kesejahteraan dengan segala
keterbatasan kelengkapan jasmaninya serta sumber-sumber alam yang ada disekitarnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Faktor lain yang perlu
diingat walaupun setiap masyarakat mengembangkan kebudayaan sebagai perwujudan
upaya menangani kebutuhan hidup sesuai tantangan lingkungan serta keterbatasan
kemampuan masuing-masing, di dunia ini tidak ada kebudayaan yang asli dalam
arti belum terkena pengaruh dari luar. Lebih-lebih setelah kemajuan teknologi
pendukung, seperti teknologi komunikasi dan perhubungan semakin tumbuh dengan
pesatnya. Tukar-menukar dan penyebebaran kebudayaan lewat kekerasan, seperti
perang dan penindasan atas bangsa-bangsa lain bukan hal yang luar biasa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Unsur kebudayaan lainya
adalah system religi yang memberikan pedoman pada anggota masyarakat dalam
memahami lingkungan semesta dan hubungannya dengan kekuatan gaib. System
pengetahuan ini sangat penting artinya sebagai pedoman dalam menanggapi
tantangan yang timbul dan harus dihadapi dalam proses penyesuaian masyarakat
terhadap lingkungan dalam arti luas.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sementara <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Clifford Geertz (1993), </b>mencoba
menyederhanakan aneka ragfam kebudayaan yang berkembang di Indonesia kedalam
dua tipe yang berbeda berdasarkan okosistemnya, yaitu kebudayaan yang
berkembang di “Indonesia luar”, yaitu diluar pulau jawa dan bali. Kebudayaan
yang berkembang di “Indonesia dalam” itu ditandai tingginya intensitas
pengolahan tanah secara teratur dan telah menggunakan tanah dengan sistem
pengairan dan menghasilkan pangan padi yang ditanam disawah. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Hildred Geertz (1981) </b>menambahkan bahwa
kebudayaan tersebut sangat dipengaruhi oleh Hinduisme, dimana masyarakatnya
sangat kuat orientasinya pada status disamping mengembangkan kesebnian yang
sangat tinggi, terutama dipusat-pusat kekuasaan (keraton) yang sekaligus
merupakan pusat peradaban pada masa itu. Selanjutnya, kebudayaan di pulau jawa
mulai mengalami pergeseran terutama sejak masuknya pengaruh kebudayaan islam
dan penjajah Belanda.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada hakikatnya,
menurut <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Josellin de Jong</b>, kebudayaan
yang tersebar di Indonesia itu mempunyai landasan, antara lain berikut ini.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bahwa
pada masa lampau masyarakat Indonesia itu terdiri dari beberapa persekutuan
yang berlandasan ikatan kekerabatan yang menganut garis keturunan secara
unilineal, baik melalui keibuan maupun kebapakan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Di
antara persekutuan kekerabatan itu terjalin hubungan kawi secara tetap sehingga
terjelma tata hubungan yang mendudukan kelompok kerabat pemberi pengantin
wanita lebih tinggi daripada kedudukan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>kelompok kerabat yang menerima pengantin wanita.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Seluruh
kelompok kekerabatan yang ada biasanya terbagi dalam dua puluh masyarakat yang
dikenal dengan istilah antropologis “Moiety” yang satu sama lain ada dalam
hubungan saling bermusuhan maupun dalam berkawan sehingga nampaknya persaingan
yang diatur oleh adat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Keanggotaan setiap
individu karenanya bersifat gandfa dalam arti bahwa setiap orang bukan hanya
menjadi anggota kelompok kerabat yang unilineal, melainkan juga anggota
kesatuan paruh masyarakat atau <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">moiety</i>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembagian masyarakat
dalam dua paruh masyarakat itu mempengaruhi pengertian masyarakat terhadap isi
semesta kedalam dua kelompok yang seolah-olah saling mengisi dalam arti serba
dua yang dipertentangkan dan sebaliknya juga saling diperlukan adanya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Akibatnya juga
tercermin dalam sistem penilaian dalam masyarakat yang bersangkutan. Ada pihak
baik dan sebaliknya ada pula pihak yang jahat atau busuk.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Seluruh susunan
kemasyarakatan itu erat dihubungkan dengan sistem kepercayaan masyarakat yang
bersangkutan, terutama yang berkaitan dengan kompleks totemisme yang didominasi
dengan upacara-upacara keagamaam dalam bentuk rangkaian upacara inisiasi dan
diperkuat dengan dongeng-dongeng suci baik yang berupa kesastraanataupun
tradisi lisan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 12.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo19; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sifat serba dua juga
tercermin dalam tata susunan dewa-dewa yang menjadi pujaan masyarakat yang
bersangkutan. Walaupun dikenal lebih dari dua dewa, mereka menggolongkan
kedalam dua dolongan dewa yang baik dan dewa yang buruk. Dewa yang tergolong
buruk atau busuk biasanya mempunyai sifat ganda, sebab disatu pihak ia
digambarkan sebagai anggota masyarakat Dewa yang mewakili golongan atas dan
yang dipuja.</span></div>
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</span></span></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Tata susunan masyarakat
Dewa itu ternyata mempengaruhi tata susunan kepemimpinan masyarakat dalam
kehidupan politik yang sering kali merupakan pencerminan tentang kepercayaan
yang berpangkal pada kehidupan dewata. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
Mira Nurlatifahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12863922507205527729noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2356466174949427472.post-90565464684445504142013-06-23T20:20:00.001-07:002013-06-23T21:22:24.097-07:00Penilaian dan Pengajaran Keterampilan Abad 21 <!--[if !mso]>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Keterampilan Belajar Abad 21 Untuk Melatih Berpikir
Kritis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> <b>dan Pemecahan
Masalah Melalui Sistem Pembelajaran Berbasis ICT (Information and
Communication Technology)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Abad 21 dikenal semua orang sebagai abad
pengetahuan yang merupakan landasan utama dari segala aspek kehidupan.
Paradigma pembelajaran abad 21 menekankan kepada kemampuan siswa untuk berpikir
kritis, mampu menghubungkan ilmu dengan dunia nyata, menguasai teknologi
informasi komunikasi, dan berkolaborasi. Pencapaian keterampilan tersebut dapat
dicapai dengan penerapan metode pembelajaran yang sesuai dari sisi penguasaan
materi dan keterampilan.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Kemampuan menghubungkan ilmu dengan
dunia nyata dilakukan dengan mengajak siswa melihat kehidupan dalam dunia
nyata. Memaknai setiap materi ajar terhadap penerapan dalam kehidupan penting
untuk mendorong motivasi belajar siswa. Secara khusus pada dunia pendidikan
dasar yang relatif masih berpikir konkrit, kemampuan guru menghubungkan setiap
materi ajar dengan kehidupan nyata akan meningkatkan penguasaan materi oleh
siswa. (Patrick Griffin & Barry McGaw. 2012)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Untuk memasuki New world of work pada
abad 21, Keterampilan belajar abad 21 mempunyai ciri:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Critical
thinking and problem solving.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Creativity and
innovation.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Collaboration,
teamwork, and leadership.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Cross-cultural
understanding, communications, information, and media literacy.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Computing and
ICT literacy.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Career and
learning self-reliance.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Ada 4 kategori keterampilan yang diperlukan pada
abad 21 diantaranya sebagai berikut :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Ways of thinking
(Cara berpikir); Kreativitas, berpikir kritis, pemecahan masalah, pengambilan
keputusan dan belajar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Ways of working
(Cara kerja dan Komunikasi); Kolaborasi dan Komunikasi (communication).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tools for
working (Alat untuk bekerja); Teknologi informasi dan komunikasi (ICT) dan
informasi literasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Skills for
living in the world (Keterampilan untuk hidup di dunia); Kewarganegaraan -
lokal dan global (citizenship – local and global), Kehidupan dan karier (life
and career), Personal dan tanggung jawab sosial-budaya, termasuk kesadaran dan
kompetensi (personal and social responcibility, including cultural awarness and
competence).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Beberapa karakter belajar yang diperlukan di abad
ke-21, yaitu :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Communication</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">. Pada karakter ini, siswa dituntut untuk memahami,
mengelola, dan menciptakan komunikasi yang efektif dalam berbagai bentuk dan
isi secara lisan, tulisan, dan multimedia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Collaboration</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">. Pada karakter ini, siswa menunjukkan kemampuannya
dalam kerjasama berkelompok dan kepemimpinan; beradaptasi dalam berbagai peran
dan tanggungjawab; bekerja secara produktif dengan yang lain; menempatkan
empati pada tempatnya; menghormati perspektif berbeda.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Critical
Thinking and Problem Solving</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">.
Pada karakter ini, siswa berusaha untuk memberikan penalaran yang masuk akal
dalam memahami dan membuat pilihan yang rumit; memahami interkoneksi antara
sistem.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Creativity and
Innovation.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> Pada karakter ini,
siswa memiliki kemampuan untuk mengembangkan, melaksanakan, dan menyampaikan
gagasan-gagasan baru kepada yang lain; bersikap terbuka dan responsif terhadap
perspektif baru dan berbeda.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Bentuk pembelajaran berbasis ICT memberikan manfaat
bagi para guru diantaranya sebagai berikut : </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Memperoleh
materi pembelajaran dengan akses lebih mudah. Guru dalam melakukan persiapan
mengajar akan lebih ringan karena guru dapat langsung menyeleksi, menyalin dan
mengedit materi yang akan disajikan;</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Meningkatkan
kompetensi pedagogik pendidik, salah satunya kreativitas serta inovasi
mengembangkan konten pembelajaran;</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Guru dapat
menyusun materi sesuai dengan kebutuhan peseta didik akan kehidupan nyata; dan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Meningkatkan
komunikasi interaktif dengan para peserta didik tanpa batas ruang dan waktu.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Peran Standar Evaluasi dalam Pengembangan
Keterampilan Abad 21</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Standarisasi berbasis evaluasi
memberikan bukti empiris untuk menilai kinerja dan dapat melayani berbagai
pengambilan keputusan demi mencapai tujuan (akuntabilitas, seleksi, penempatan,
evaluasi, diagnosis, atau perbaikan), evaluasi yang telah dilakukan di masa
lalu seperti telah menemukan efek yang cukup seragam, yaitu :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Evaluasi menjadi
prioritas kurikulum dan pengajaran, sandaran visibilitas berfungsi untuk
memfokuskan standar isi pendidikan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Guru cenderung
menggunakan pendekatan model pedagogis high visibility yang bergantung pada
tes.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Instruksi yang
telah digunakan lebih menekankan keterampilan kognitif tingkat rendah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pengembang
kurikulum khususnya untuk kepentingan komersial, menanggapi tes penting dengan
memodifikasi buku yang ada dan bahan ajar lainnya atau pengembangan dan
pemasaran buku-buku baru.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Sekolah dan guru
terlalu fokus pada aspek-aspek yang akan diujiankan bukan pada apa yang menjadi
standar atau tujuan pembelajaran.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Evaluasi lebih
difokuskan pada tes bukan pembelajaran yang mendasarinya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pembelajaran
instruksional diarahkan pada tes, sekolah memberikan para siswa berbagai jenis
tes mulai dari kegiatan ujian “komersial”, kelas khusus, pekerjaan rumah, dan
lain-lain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Desain dan
pengembangan evaluasi harus menyatukan dasar penelitian yang kaya ada pada
proses siswa belajar dan bagaimana itu berkembang untuk menghasilkan generasi
baru.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="more"></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Seperti di ungkapkan dalam diskusi
pendidikan di Amerika Serikat sebagai berikut : setiap penilaian bertumpu pada
tiga pilar: model bagaimana siswa merepresentasikan pengetahuan dan
mengembangkan kompetensi dalam domain materi pelajaran, tugas atau situasi yang
memungkinkan seseorang untuk mengamati kinerja siswa, dan metode interpretasi
untuk menarik kesimpulan dari bukti-bukti kinerja yang diperoleh (Pellegrino et
al. 2001: 2 dalam Griffin, Mc Gaw, 2012: 22).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Mengadopsi model pembaruan evaluasi,
bagan Integrated Assesment System dimaksudkan untuk mengkomunikasikan bahwa
evaluasi berkualitas mulai digagas dan berakhir dengan tujuan yang jelas untuk
kebermaknaan siswa dalam belajar. Link interpretasi memperkuat gagasan bahwa
tanggapan dari tugas penilaian harus secara khusus dianalisis dan disintesis
dengan cara mengungkapkan dan mendukung kesimpulan valid yang terhubung pada
tujuan penggunaan hasil evaluasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2356466174949427472" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2356466174949427472" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2356466174949427472" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2356466174949427472" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2356466174949427472" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, maka
dirumuskan standar evaluasi abad ke 21 adalah sebagai berikut :</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Disejajarkan
dengan perkembangan signifikan yang menjadi tujuan keterampilan abad dua puluh
satu.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Memungkinkan
sistem adaptasi pada kemungkinan yang tidak dapat diprediksi.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Sebagian besar
evaluasi berbasis kinerja.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tambahkan nilai
dalam proses belajar mengajar.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Membuat
pemikiran siswa terbuka.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Bersikap adil.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Data penilaian
harus memberikan informasi yang akurat dan dapat diandalkan dalam pembentukan
untuk pengambilan keputusan.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Berorientasi
pada tujuan pembelajaran.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Validitas tujuan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Menghasilkan informasi yang dapat ditindaklanjuti
dan memberikan umpan balik yang produktif dan bermanfaat untuk semua pengguna
yang dimaksudkan.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Menyediakan umpan balik yang produktif.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Membangun kapasitas untuk pendidik dan siswa.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">13)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Menjadi bagian dari sistem yang komprehensif.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"></span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Alternatif yang ditawarkan dalam evaluasi
keterampilan abad 21 yaitu dengan menggunakan sistem evaluasi berbasis ICT</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"></span></div>
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/></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5vEyiThyFsDQqB1TvLsp04WBm9Fdw8OY2pj4Md0NIR4_yjPs2t3mPb5oPgaJDadhqHTF-Lg1md6o0bg4USegejorIkJmLr-yH_NiH_Stv5nTfHPhwHt8t-XoID1SCvZHpEiSsPQmtysmz/s1600/2.PNG"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="mso-ignore: vglayout;"><br /></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Bagan diatas menyediakan representasi
antara dua tujuan evaluasi secara bersama-sama yaitu keuntungan efisiensi usaha
versus keuntungan transformasi pendidikan. Semakin rendah kuadran kiri mewakili
penilaian tradisional, biasanya berbasis tes tulisan dan serupa dari tahun ke
tahun, penilaian sekolah kebanyakan dan perguruan tinggi berbasis jenis ini.
Bergerak dari kiri bawah ke kuadran kanan bawah merupakan strategi migrasi yang
penilaian berbasis tes yang mulai berubah ke lingkungan berbasis lingkungan.
Pengiriman lebih efisien, tetapi penilaian secara kualitatif tidak berubah.
Sebaliknya, pindah ke kuadran kanan atas merupakan strategi transformasional di
mana teknologi yang digunakan untuk mendukung penilaian inovatif yang dirancang
untuk mempengaruhi (atau minimal untuk mencerminkan) inovasi dalam desain
kurikulum dan pembelajaran. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Referensi :</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Powerpoint dari Bapak Ibnu Hurri, H. S.sos mengenai <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">"Penilaian
dan Pengajaran Keterampilan Abad 21"</span>.</b></span></div>
Mira Nurlatifahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12863922507205527729noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2356466174949427472.post-72222761604630875992013-06-17T19:10:00.000-07:002013-06-17T19:42:08.835-07:00Bentuk-Bentuk Badan Usaha<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: Harrington; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;">1.</span></b><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 6.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: Harrington; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;"> </span></b><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;">P</span></b><b><span lang="FI" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;">erusahaan menurut lapangan usahanya</span></b><span lang="FI" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">a.</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan ekstraktif adalah perusahaan yang melakukan
kegiatan dengan melepaskan benda dari ikatan alam. Maksudnya perusahaan ini b</span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">ergerak di bidang usaha penggalian, pengambilan, atau pengolahan kekayaan
yang disediakan alam. Hasil yang diambil dari alam tidak diolah atau diusahakan
sebelumnya. Misalnya, PT INCO (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">International
Nickel Company</i>) yang mengambil dan megolah nikel dari alam di beberapa
wilayah Indonesia, pengambilan hasil hutan dan pengeboran minyak. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">b.</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan Agraris</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan agraris adalah perusahaan yang melakukan
usaha atau kegiatan dengan memanfaatkan tanah atas kesuburannya. Maksudnya
perusahaan ini b</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">ergerak dalam usaha pengolahan
tanah. Hasilnya diambil dari alam, namun terlebih dahulu diolah tanahnya untuk
memperoleh hasilnya. Misalnya, perusahaan yang berusaha di bidang pertanian,
perkebunan, perikanan darat, kehutanan dll.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">c.</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan Industri</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan industri adalah perusahaan yang kegiatan
usahanya bergerak di bidang pengolahan bahan mentah menjadi barang jadi atau
setengah jadi</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">. Misalnya</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> :</span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">PT Semen Tonasa dan PT Semen Cibinong yang mengolah batu gunung, gips,
dan bahan lainnya menjadi semen</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan pembuat kursi yang megolah kayu, plastik, kain, menjadi
kursi yang siap pakai.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">d.</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan Perdagangan</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan perdagangan adalah perusahaan yang kegiatan
usahanya b</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">ergerak di bidang </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">jual beli
barang, membeli dari produsen dan menjual ke konsumen tanpa merubah bentuk,
maupun mutu barang yang diperjualbelikan</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">. Misalnya,
pedagang pakaian , pedagang sayuran dll.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">e.</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan Jasa</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan jasa adalah perusahaan
yang kegiatan usahanya bergerak di bidang pemberian pelayanan kepada konsumen
dengan tujuan memperoleh pendapatan berupa imbalan jasa</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">. Misalanya, perusahan pengangkutan, perhotelan, perbankan, dan
perasuransian. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: Harrington; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;">2.</span></b><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 6.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: Harrington; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;">
</span></b><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;">Perusahaan menurut tanggung jawab pemiliknya</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-themecolor: text1;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">a.</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan Perseorangan</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan perseorangan merupakan bentuk badan usaha
hukum yang hanya dimiliki oleh satu orang dan menanggung seluruh resiko secara
pribadi. Manajeman perusahaan dikelola pemilik yang berfungsi sebagai direktur
atau manajer atau bahkan sekaligus pelaksana harian di perusahaan tersebut.
Pemilik merupakan aktor utama dalam mengambil setiap kebijakaan dan keputusan
perusahaan. Kemudian juga dalam hal pengelolaan aktivitas perusahaan
sehari-hari, termasuk melakukan hubungan dengan para pihak yang berkepentingan
terhadap perusahaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan perseorangan memiliki struktur yang
sederahana dengan kepemilikan tunggal serta memiliki tanggung jawab tidak
terbatas terhadap seluruh utang perusahaan yang dimiliki perusahaan. Artinya,
apabila harta kekayaan perusahaan tidak mencukupi untuk membayar kewajibannya
maka akan digunakan harta milik pribadi. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Adapun keuntungan yang diperoleh jika memilih
perusahaan perseorangan adalah sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pendirian
perusahaan sangat mudah dan tidak berbelit-belit.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan
perseorangan cocok untuk usaha yang relatif kecil atau mereka yang memiliki
modal dan bidang usaha yang terbatas.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Tidak
terlalu memerlukan akta formal (akta notaris), sehingga pemilik tidak perlu
mengeluarkan biaya yang berlebihan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Memilki
keleluasaan dalam hal mengambil keputusan baik menentukan arah perusahaan atau
hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan keuangan perusahaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dalam hal
peraturan, tidak terlalu banyak peraturan pemerintah yang mengatur perusahaan
jenis ini, sehingga pemilik bebas melakukan aktivitasnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dalam hal
pajak pemilik tidak perlu membayar pajak perseroan, walaupun semua pendapatan
harus bayar pajak perorangan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Semua
keuntungan menjadi dan dimiliki oleh pemilik dan dapat digunakan secara bebas
oleh pemilik.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Sementara
itu keterbatasan atau kerugian perusahaan perorangan antara lain dalam hal:</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Permodalan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Lebih sulit memperoleh modal yang
artinya jika perusahaan ini ingin mendapatkan tambahan modal atau investasi
dari perbankan relatif sulit, terutama untuk jumlah yang besar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Ikut tender</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan perseorangan relatif
sulit mengikuti tender karena kesulitan dalam memenuhi persyaratan kelengkapan
dokumen dan jumlah dana yang tersedia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Tanggung
jawab</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pemilik perusahaan perseorangan
bertanggung jawab terhadap utang perusahaan secara penuh.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kelangsungan
hidup</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Biasanya kelangsungan hidup atau
umur perusahaan relatif lebih singkat. Hal ini disebabkan sulitnya mencari
pengganti pemilik perusahaan apabila pemilik meninggal dunia, sehingga terjadi
kefakuman yang menyebabkan kelangsungan hidup perusahaan berakhir.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Sulit
berkembang</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan akan sulit berkembang
jika menggunakan badan hukum perseorangan. Hal ini dikarenakan kesulitan dalam
mengelola usaha yang hanya berada dalam satu tangan. Sehingga jika ingin
memperbesar perusahaan harus mengubah badan hukumnya terlebih dahulu.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Administrasi
yang tidak terkelola secara baik</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dalam menjalankan aktivitasnya
perusahaan perseorangan tidak megelola administrasinya secara baik, sehingga
dokumentasi dari setiap transaksi sulit untuk dicari. Bahkan terkadang setiap
transaksi tidak didukung dengan dokumen yang seharusnya dibutuhkan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">b.</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Firma (Fa)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Firma adalah perusahaan yang didirikan oleh dua orang
atau lebih dan menjalankan perusahaan atas nama perusahaan. Dalam persekutuan
firma umumnya seluruh sekutu memiliki kewajiban tidak terbatas terhadap utang
perusahaan, sedangkan dalam persekutuan terbatas satu atau lebih pemilik
mungkin memiliki kewajiban terbatas.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Untuk mendirikan firma terdiri dari dua cara. Pertama
melalui akta resmi dan yang kedua akta dibawah tangan. Jika melalui akta resmi,
maka proses selanjutnya harus sampai di berita Negara. Namun jika memilih akta
di bawah tangan proses tersebut tidak perlu, cukup melalui kesepakatan
pihak-pihak terlibat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kepemimpinan firma berada sepenuhnya di tangan pemilik
sekaligus bertanggung jawab terhadap segala resiko yang mungkin timbul, seperti
masalah utang piutang. Modal firma diperoleh dari mereka yang terlibat dalam
firma dan besarnya tergantung kesepakatan dari para pihak yang terlibat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Mendirikan perusahaan bentuk firma lebih menguntungkan
dibandingkan dengan perusahaan perorangan. Keuntungan dengan pendirian
perusahaan dalam bentuk firma antara lain:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Untuk
mendirikan firma relatif mudah, tidak memerlukan persyaratan yang berat. Namun
jika dibandingkan dengan perusahaan perseorangan lebih sedikit berat kerena
dalam firma perlu kesepakatan para pihak yang akan mendirikan firma.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dalam
pendirian firma tidak terlalu memerlukan akta formal, karea dapat menggunakan
akta dibawah tangan (tidak formal).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Lebih mudah
memperoleh modal, karena pihak perbankan lebih mempercayainya. Apalagi jika
firma tersebut didirikan dengan akta resmi dan juga tidak terlalu banyak
peraturan permerintah yang mengatur.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Lebih mudah
berkembang karena dipegang lebih dari satu orang, sehingga lebih terbuka
terhadap berbagai pendapat atau kritikan untuk kemajuan usaha.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Adapun kerugian jika memilih perusahaan dalam bentuk
badan hukum Firma adalah:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pemilik
firma memiliki tanggung jawab yang tidak terbatas atas utang yang dimilikinya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Apabila
salah satu pihak pemilik firma meninggal dunia atau mengundurkan diri, maka
akan mengancam kelangsungan hidup perusahaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kesulitan
dalam peralihan kepemimpinan karena berbagai kepentingan para pihak yang
terlibat dan juga sering terjadi konflik kepentingan sehingga dapat mengancam
kemajuan usahanya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kesulitan
dalam menghimpun dana untuk jumlah besar, serta mengikuti tender dalam jumlah
tertentu.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">c.</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Persekutuan Komanditer (CV)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Komanditier atau Commanditaire Vennootshcap lebih
sering disingkat dengan CV mrupakan persekutuan yang didirikan berdasarkan
kepercayaan. CV merupakan salah satu bentuk usaha yang dipilih oleh para
pengusaha yang ingin melakukan kegiatan usaha dengan modal yang terbatas. CV
merupakan badan usaha yang tidak berbadan hukum dan kekayaan para pendirinya
tidak terpisahkan dari kekayaan CV.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dalam perseroan komanditer terdapat beberapa sekutu
yang secara penuh bertanggung jawab atas sekutu lainnya. Kemudian ada satu atau
lebih sekutu yang bertindak sebagai pemberi modal. Tanggung jawab setuku
komanditer hanya terbatas pada sejumlah modal yang ditanamkan dalam perusahaan.
Jadi, sekutu yang terdapat dalam CV ada 2 yaitu sekutu komanditer (sekutu
pasif) dan sekutu komplementer (sekutu aktif).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan perseroan Komanditer dijalankan oleh
seorang sekutu aktif dan bertanggung jawab atas segala resiko atau kewajiban
pihak ketiga. Tanggung jawab ini juga sampai pada penggunaan harta pribadi.
Adapun sekutu pasif hanya menyetorkan sejumlah dana, namun tidak terlibat dalam
pengelolaan perusahaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Karateristik badan usaha CV:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">CV didirikan
minimal 2 orang, dimana salah satu pihak bertindak sebagai Persero Komplementer
(Persero Aktif) yaitu persero pengurus yang menjabat sebagai direktur,
sedangkan yang lainnya bertindak sebagai Persero Komanditer (Persero Pasif).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Seorang
persero aktif akan bertindak melakukan segala tindakan pengurusan atas
perseroan. Dengan demikian, apabila terjadi kerugian maka persero aktif yang
bertanggung jawab secara penuh dengan seluruh harta pribadinya untuk
menggantikan kerugian.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Adapun untuk
persero komanditer, karena dia hanya bisa bertindak selaku sleeping patner,
maka dia hanya bertanggung jawab sebesar modal yang disetorkannya ke dalam
perseroan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Keuntungan dalam mendirikan perseroan Komanditer
adalah:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Untuk
mendirikan CV untuk saat ini relative lebih sulit, karena memerlukan syarat
yang cukup banyak dibandingkan dengan firma. Pendirian CV harus melalui akta
notaris dan didaftarkan di Departemen Kehakiman.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Bentuk CV
sudah dikenal masyarakat, terutama masyarakat bisnis kecil dan menegah,
sehingga memudahkan perusahaan ikut dalam berbagai kegiatan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">CV lebih
mudah dalam memperoleh modal, karena pihak perbankan lebih mempercayainya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Lebih mudah
berkembang karena manajemen dipegang oleh orang yang ahli dan dipercaya oleh
sekutu lainnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">CV lebih
fleksibel, karena tanggung jawab terbatas hanya pada sekutu Komanditer
sedangkan yang mengurus perusahaan dan mempunyai tanggung jawab tidak terbatas
hanya sekutu komplementer.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pengenaan
pajak hanya satu kali, yaitu pada badan usaha saja. Pembagian keuntungan atau
laba yang diberikan kepada sekutu Komanditer tidak lagi dikenakan pajak
penghasilan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Adapun kerugian jika memilih perusahaan dalam pentuk
CV antara lain:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Maka
tanggung jawab akan menjadi tanggung jawab pribadi apabila sekutu komanditer
menjadi sekutu aktif.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Status hukum
badan usaha CV jarang dipilih oleh pemilik modal atau beberapa proyek besar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Sementara
itu untuk mendirikan CV tidak diperlukan syarat yang berat. Adapun persyarata
pendirian CV adalah sebagai berikut:</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pendirian CV
disyaratkan oleh dua orang, dengan menggunakan akta notaris dan menggunakan
bahasa Indonesia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pada
pendirian CV, yang harus dipersiapkan sebelum datang ke notaris adalah adanya
persiapan mengenai: nama CV yang akan digunakan, tempat kedudukan CV, siapa
saja yang bertindak sebagai persero aktif, dan persero diam, maksud dan tujuan
pendirian CV serta dokumen persyaratan yang lain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">CV tersebut didaftarkan
pada pengadilan negeri setempat serta membawa perlengkapan berupa: SKPD (Surat
Keterangan Domisili Perusahaan) dan NPWP atas nama CV yang bersangkutan, guna
memperkuat kedudukan CV.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">d.</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perseroan Terbatas (PT)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perseroan terbatas (PT) adalah badan hukum perusahaan
yang paling banyak digunakan dan diminati oleh para pengusaha. Penyebabnya
adalah karena badan hukum seperti ini memiliki banyak kelebihan jika
dibandingkan dengan badan hukum lainnya. Kelebihannya antara lain luasnya badan
usaha yang dimiliki, kebebasan bergerak dalam berbagai bidang usaha serta
tanggung jawab yang dimiliki terbatas hanya kepada modal yang disetorkan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Berikut ciri utama dari perusahaan yang berbentuk
badan hukum perseroan terbatas, yaitu:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kewajiban
terhadap pihak luar, terbatas hanya kepada modal yang disetorkannya. Artinya,
jika perusahaan menanggung utang, maka kewajiban pemilik hanya terbatas kepada
modal yang disetorkan. Oleh karena itu harta pribadi tidak ikut dijaminkan
untuk membayar kewajiban tersebut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kemudahan
alih kepemilikan, artinya jika seseorang memegang saham perusahaan tersebut
kemudian ingin menjualnya dengan berbagai sebab, maka dengan mudah dapat
dipindahtangankan atau dijual ke pihak lain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Usia PT
tidak terbatas, artinya perusahaan yang berbentuk perseroan terbatas memiliki
usia yang tidak terbatas, selama masih mampu untuk beroperasi walaupun pemilik
atau manajemennya meninggal dunia dapat dilanjutkan oleh pemilik saham lainnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kemampuan
untuk menghimpun dana dalam jumlah yang besar, artinya jika perusahaan ingin
memperoleh modal dalam jumlah yang besar, maka dengan mudah pihak kreditor
untuk mempercayainya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kebebasan
untuk melakukan berbagai aktivitas bisnis, baik jenis atau bidang usaha maupun
wilayah operasinya lebih luas dan beragam.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kemudian untuk menjalankan aktivitasnya setiap
perseroan terbatas memiliki Organ Perseroan,yaitu:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Rapat Umum
Pemegang Saham.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Direksi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dewan
Komisaris.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Macam-macam perseroan terbatas yang dilihat dari
berbagai sudut pandang, yakni:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dilihat dari
segi kepemilikan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">1)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perseroan
Terbatas Biasa</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Merupakan PT dimana para pendirinya,
pemegang saham dan pengurusnya adalah warga Negara Indonesia dan badan hukum
Indonesia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">2)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perseroan
Terbatas Terbuka</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Merupakan PT yang didirikan dalam rangka penanaman
modal yang dimungkinkan warga negara asing atau badan hukum asing menjadi
pendiri, pemegang saham, dan pengurusnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">3)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perseroan
Terbatas PERSERO</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Merupakan PT milik pemerintah melalui Badan Usaha
Milik Negara (BUMN). Perseroan terbatas jenis ini sebagian besar pengaturannya
tunduk pada ketentuan tentang Badan Usaha Milik Negara. Biasanya perusahaan
jenis ini. Kata perseroan ditulis di belakang nama perseroan terbatas tersebut.
Contoh: PT Telkom (Persero).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dilihat dari
segi status perseroan terbatas terbagi dalam:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">1)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perseroan
Tertutup</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perseroan tertutup merupakan
Perseroan Terbatas yang modal dan jumlah pemegang sahamnya memenuhi kriteria
tertentu dan perseroan yang tidak melakukan penawaran umum.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">2)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perseroan
Terbuka</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perseroan Terbuka maksudnya adalah
perseroan yang modal dan jumlah pemegang sahamnya memenuhi kriteria tertentu
dan perseroan yang melakukan penawaran umum, sesuai dengan peraturan
perundang-undangan di bidang pasar modal.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Persyaratan mendirikan perseroan terbatas sesuai
dengan undang-undang PT, yakni:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perseroan
didirikan oleh dua orang atau lebih dengan akta notaris yang dibuat dalam
bahasa Indonesia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Setiap
pendirian Perseroan wajib mengambil bagian saham pada saat perseroan didirikan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pada saat
peleburan, tidak berlaku ketentuan yang tertera pada ayat (2).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perseroan
memperoleh badan hukum pada tanggal diterbitkannya keputusan menteri mengenai
pengesahan badan hukum perseroan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Setelah
perseroan memperoleh status badan hukum dan pemegang saham kurang dari dua
orang, dalam jangka waktu paling lama enam bulan terhitung sejak keadaan
tersebut pemegang saham yang bersangkutan wajib mengalihkan sebagian sahamnya
kepada orang lain atau perseroan mengeluarkan saham baru kepada orang lain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Apabila
telah melampaui waktu enam bulan, pemegang saham tetap kurang dari dua orang,
maka pemegang saham bertanggung jawab secara pribadi atas segala perikatan dan
kerugian perseroan, dan atas permohonan pihak yang berkepentingan, pengadilan
negeri dapat membubarkan perseroan tersebut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Ketentuan
yang tertera pada ayat (1), (5), dan (6) tidak berlaku bagi:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">1)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Persero yang
seluruh sahamnya dimiliki oleh negara.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">2)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perseroan
yang mengelola bursa efek, lembaga kliring dan penjaminan, lembaga penyimpanan
dan penyelesaian, dan lembaga lain sebagaimana diatur dalam Undang-Undang
tentang Pasar Modal.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dalam praktiknya modal perseroan terbatas terdiri
dari:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Modal Dasar
(Authorized Capital)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Modal dasar terdiri dari atas
seluruh nilai nominal saham dan merupakan modal pertama kali dan tertera dalam
akta notaris pada saat perseroan terbatas tersebut didirikan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Modal
ditempatkan atau dikeluarkan (Issued Capital)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Merupakan modal yang telah
ditempatkan atau dikeluarkan oleh pemegang saham. Besarnya modal ditempatkan
minimal 25% dari modal dasar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Modal Sektor
(Paid-Up Capital)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Merupakan modal yang harus disetor
oleh pemegang saham yang jumlahnya paling sedikit 25% dari modal dasar harus
ditempatkan dan disetorkan penuh. Modal ditempatkan dan disetorkan penuh dengan
dibuktikan dengan penyetoran yang sah. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kebaikan
dari Perseroan Terbatas :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pemegang
saham bertanggung jawab terbatas terhadap hutang-hutang perusahaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Mudah
mendapatkan tambahan dana atau modal misalnya dengan mengeluarkan saham baru.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kelangsungan
hidup perusahaan lebih terjamin.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Terdapat
efesiensi pengelolaan sumber dana dan efesiensi pimpinan, karena pimpinan dapat
diganti sewak tu-waktu melalui Rapat Umum Pemegang Saham.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kepengurusan
perseroan memiliki tanggung jawab yang jelas kepada pemilik atau pemegang
saham.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Diatur
dengan jelas oleh undang-undang perseroan terbatas serta peraturan lain yang
mengikat dan melindungi kegiatan perusahaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Keburukan dari Perseroan Terbatas :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Merupakan
subjek pajak tersendiri dan deviden yang diterima pemegang saham akan dikenakan
pajak.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kurang
terjamin rahasia perusahaan, karena semua kegiatan harus dilaporkan kepada
pemegang saham</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Proses
pendiriannya membutuhkan waktu lebih lama dan biaya yang lebih besar dari CV.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">e.</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan Negara (PN)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan negara adalah semua perusahaan dalam bentuk
apa pun dan bergerak pada bidang apa saja yang sebagian besar modal atau
seluruhnya merupakan kekayaan negara, kecuali dengan ketentuan lain berdasarkan
undang-undang.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Peraturan Pemerintah Pengganti Undang-undang (Perpu)
No.19 Tahun 1960, perusahaan negara (PN) adalah suatu bentuk badan hukum yang
tunduk pada segala macam hukum Indonesia. Selanjutnya, perusahaan negara adalah
kesatuan produksi yang menghasilkan sesuatu untuk memupuk pendapatan tanpa
meninggalkan sifat pengabdian kepada umum (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">publik
service</i>). Tujuan utama adalah membangun ekonomi nasional menuju tercapainya
masyarakat yang adil dan makmur.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Beberapa bentuk perusahaan negara baik milik
pemerintah pusat maupun pemerintah daerah, yaitu perseroan, perusahaan umum
(perum), perusahaan jawatan (Perjan), perusahaan daerah (PD).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Persero pada prinsipnya adalah perseroan terbatas (PT)
milik pemerintah tujuan utamanya adalah mencari laba untuk mengisi kas negara.
Negara sebagai pemegang saham menjadi tanda bukti ikut serta dalam memiliki
perusahaan. Jadi, harus berprinsip ekonomi jangan sampai merugikan negara.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan umum dan perusahaan jawatan bukan sebagai
organisasi usaha yang semata-mata mencari keuntungan, tetapi juga untuk
memeberikan pelayanan kepada masyarakat, apabila pendapatannya lebih rendah
dari biaya operasinya maka kerugian akan menjadi tanggungan negara yang berupa
subsidi negara.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Instruksi Presiden RI No.17 tahun 1967 yang disebut
perusahaan umum adalah sebagai berikut :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Tujuan utama
adalah melayani kepentingan umum, sekaligus mencari keuntungan dengan prinsip
efisiensi dan efektivitas usaha.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Berstatus
badan hukum dan diatur berdasarkan undang-undang.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Bergerak di
bidang usaha vital.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Mempunyai
nama dan kekayaan serta mempunyai kebebasan bergerak seperti halnya perusahaan
swasta untuk mengikat suatu perjanjian, kontrak, serta hubungan-hubungan dengan
pihak lain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dapat
dituntut dan menuntut, dalam hubungan hukum diatur dalam hukum perdata.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Seluruh
modalnya dimiliki oleh negara dan kekayaan negara yang dipisahkan, serta dapat
memperoleh dana pinjaman dari dalam dan luar atau dari masyarakat dalam bentuk
obligasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Secara
finansial pada prinsipnya harus dapat berdiri sendiri, kecuali ada kebijakan
pemerintah mengenai tarif dan harga yang tidak mengizinkan tercapainya tujuan
ini.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dipimpin
oleh seorang direksi, pegawainya adalah pegawai perusahaan negara yang diatur
tersendiri di luar ketentuan yang berlaku bagi pegawai negeri atau perusahaan
swasta.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Setiap tahun
diwajibkan menyusun laporan tahunan yang brupa neraca, laporan rugi laba dan
perubahan modal.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Perusahaan Jawatan (Perjan) ciri-cirinya adalah
sebagai berikut :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Tujuan utama
adalah pengabdian serta pelayanan kepada masyarakat secara efisien.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Merupakan
bagian dari suatu Departemen/Direktorat Jenderal/Direktorat/Pemerintah Daerah.
Perjan mempunyai hubungan hukum publik. Apabila dituntut dan menuntut maka
kedudukannya adalah sebagai pemerintah atau seizin pemerintah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dipimpin
oleh seorang kepala yang merupakan bawahan suatu bagian dari
Departemen/Direktoran Jenderal/Direktorat/Pemerintah Daerah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pegawainya
berstatus Pegawai Negeri.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Instruksi
Presiden No.17 Tahun 1967, ciri utama persero adalah sebagai berikut :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Bertujuan
untuk mencari keuntungan, dengan status hukum perseroan terbatas.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Sebagian
atau seluruh modalnya merupakan milik negara dan kekayaan negara yang dipisahkan
sehingga memungkinkan untuk kerja sama dengan pihak swasta, baik dalam maupun
luar negeri, serta melakukan penjualan saham-saham milik negara.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Negara tidak
memberikan fasilitas.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dipimpin
oleh direksi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pegawainya
berstatus sebagai pegawai perusahaan swasta.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">f.</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Koperasi</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Koperasi merupakan badan usaha yang terdiri dari
kumpulan orang-orang yang bertujuan mensejahterakan para anggotanya, walaupun
dalam praktiknya koperasi juga melayani kepentingan umum. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Menurut undang-undang nomor 25 tahun 1995, koperasi
adalah badan usaha yang beranggotakan orang-orang atau badan hukum koperasi
dengan melandaskan kegiatannya berdasarkan prinsip koperasi, sekaligus sebagai
gerakan ekonomi rakyat berdasarkan asas kekeluargaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Tujuan koperasi adalah untuk memajukan kesejahteraan
para anggota pada khususnya dan masyarakat pada umumnya. Kemudian koperasi juga
ikut membangun tatanan perekonomian nasional dalam rangka mewujudkan masyarakat
yang maju, adil, dan makmur berlandaskan Pancasila dan Undang-Undang Dasar
1945.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Fungsi dan peran koperasi di dalam masyarakat dan
pemerintah sesuai dengan Undang-Undang Koperasi, yaitu:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">•</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Membangun
dan mengembangkan potensi dan kemampuan ekonomi anggota pada khususnya dan
masyarakat pada umumnya, untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan ekonomi dan sosial.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">•</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Berperan
serta secara aktif dalam upaya mempertinggi kualitas kehidupan manusia dan
masyarakat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">•</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Memperkukuh
perekonomian rakyat sebagai dasar kekuatan dan ketahanan perekonomian nasional
dengan koperasi sebagai saka guru.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">•</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Berusaha
untuk mewujudkan dan mengembangkan perekonomian nasional yang merupakan usaha
bersama berdasarkan atas asas kekeluargaan dan demokrasi ekonomi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Persyaratan untuk mendirikan koperasi yang
berlandaskan Pancasila dan Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 serta atas dasar asas
kekeluargaan adalah sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Koperasi
primer dibentuk sekurang-kurangnya 20 orang.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Koperasi
sekunder dibentuk sekurang-kurangnya 3 koperasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pembentukan
koperasi dilakukan dengan akta pendirian yang memuat anggaran dasar
sekurang-kurangnya:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">1)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Daftar Nama Pendiri</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">2)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Nama dan
Tempat Kedudukan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">3)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Maksud dan
Tujuan serta Bidang Usaha</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">4)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Ketentuan
Mengenai Keanggotaan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">5)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Ketentuan
Mengenai Rapat Anggota</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">6)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Ketentuan
Mengenai Pengelolaan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">7)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Ketentuan
Mengenai Permodalan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">8)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Ketentuan
Mengenai Jangka Waktu Berdirinya</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">9)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Ketentuan
Mengenai Pembagian Sisa Hasil Usaha</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">10)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Ketentuan
Mengenai Sanksi</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Koperasi
memperoleh status badan hukum setelah akta pendiriannya disahkan oleh
pemerintah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">1)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Untuk
memperoleh pengesahan, para pendiri mengajukan permintaan tertulis disertai
akta pendirian koperasi</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">2)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pengesahan
akta diberikan paling lama tiga bulan setelah diterimanya permintaan pengesahan
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">3)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pengesahan
akta pendirian diumumkan dalam Berita Negara Republik Indonesia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Jenis koperasi berdasarkan pada kesamaan kegiatan dan
kepentingan ekonomi anggotanya. Secara umum koperasi dibagi menjadi 2 yaitu:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Koperasi
primer adalah koperasi yang didirikan oleh dan beranggotakan orang-seorang.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Koperasi
sekunder adalah koperasi yang didirikan oleh dan beranggotakan koperasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Modal koperasi terdiri dari modal sendiri dan modal
pinjaman. Modal sendiri berasal dari simpanan pokok, simpanan wajib, dana
cadangan, atau hibah. Modal pinjaman berasal dari anggota koperasi lainnya dan
anggotanya, bank dan lembaga keuangan lainnya, atau melalui penerbitan obligasi
serta surat utang lainnya. Tujuan koperasi adalah untuk membangun dan
mengembangkan potensi kemampuan ekonomi anggota pada khususnya dam masyarakat
pada umunya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dalam menjalankan aktivitasnya, koperasi memiliki
bidang usaha yang cukup luas dan hampir semua bidang usaha dapat dijalankan
koperasi. Berikut ini lapangan usaha koperasi yang dapat dijalankan koperasi
adalah:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Usaha
koperasi adalah usaha yang berkaitan langsung dengan kepentingan anggota untuk
meningkatkan usaha dan kesejahteraan anggota.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kelebihan
kemampuan pelayanan koperasi dapat digunakan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan
masyarakat yang bukan anggota koperasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Koperasi
menjalankan kegiatan usaha dan berperan utama disegala bidang kehidupan ekonomi
rakyat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Koperasi
dapat menghimpun dana dan menyalurkan melalui kegiatan usaha simpan pinjam dari
dan untuk:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">1)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Anggota
koperasi yang bersangkutan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">2)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Koperasi
lain atau anggotanya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kegiatan
usaha simpan pinjam dapat dilaksanakan sebagai salah satu atau satu-satunya
kegiatan koperasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pelaksanaan
kegiatan usaha simpan pinjam oleh koperasi diatur lebih lanjut dengan peraturan
pemerintah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">g.</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Yayasan</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Yayasan merupakan badan usaha yang dibentuk untuk
kegiatan sosial atau pelayanan masyarakat. Tujuannya memberikan pelayanan
seperti kesehatan atau pendidikan atau pemberdayaan masyarakat umum dan tidak
mencari keuntungan. Modal berasal dari sumbangan, wakaf, hibah, atau sumbangan
lainnya. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kekayaan yayasan baik berupa uang, barang, maupun
kekayaan lain yang diperoleh yayasan. Berdasarkan undang-undang ini dilarang
dialihkan atau dibagikan secara langsung atau tidak langsung kepada pembina,
pengurus, pengawas, karyawan, atau pihak lain yang mempunyai kepentingan
terhadap yayasan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dalam menjalankan kegiatannya sehari-hari yayasan
mempunyai organ yang terditri atas:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pembina</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pengurus</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pengawas</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Ketentuan, syarat, dan pendirian yayasan antara lain :</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Yayasan
didirikan oleh satu orang atau lebih dengan memisahkan sebagian harta kekayaan
pendirinya sebagai kekayaan awal.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Pendirian
yayasan dilakukan dengan akta notaris dan dibuat dalam bahasa Indonesia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Yayasan
dapat didirikan berdasarkkan surat wasiat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Yayasan
memperoleh status badan hukum setelah akta pendirian yayasan memperoleh
pengesahan dari materi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Kewenangan
materi dalam memberikan pengesahan akta pendirian yayasan sebagai hukum
dilaksanakan oleh Kepala Kantor Wilayah Departemen Kehakiman dan Hak Asasi
Manusia atas nama menteri, yang wilayah kerjanya meliputi tempat kedudukan
yayasan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 5.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">·</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: IN;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Dalam
memberikan pengesahan, Kepala Kantor Departemen Kehakiman dan Hak Asasi Manusia
dapat meminta pertimbangan instalasi terkait.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
Mira Nurlatifahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12863922507205527729noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2356466174949427472.post-83148599119096632572013-06-10T19:09:00.001-07:002013-06-10T19:09:27.529-07:00Problema Masuk dan Persebaran Islam di Indonesia<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ada beberapa pendapat mengenai
proses penyebaran Islam di Indonesia. Menurut Ricklefs, proses<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>penyebaran Islam dilakukan dengan dua proses.
Pertama, penduduk pribumi berhubungan dengan agama Islam dan kemudian
menganutnya. Kedua, orang-orang asing (Arab, India, Persia, dan lain-lain) yang
telah memeluk agama Islam bertempat tinggal secara permanen di suatu wilayah
Indonesia, melakukan perkawinan campuran dan mengikuti gaya hidup lokal
sehingga ajaran Islam dengan mudah masuk dalam kehidupan pribumi (orang
Indonesia). Perkembangan berikutnya penyebaran Islam dilakukan melalui
pertunjukan kesenian, diplomasi politik dengan penguasa setempat, membuka
lembaga-lembaga pendidikan seperti pesantren, dan tasawuf.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Agama dan kebudayaan Islam mengalami
perkembangan yang cukup pesat di wilayah Indonesia. Perkembangan ini berawal
dari masyarakat Indonesia yang berada di daerah pesisir pantai. Dari daerah
pesisir pantai inilah, agama dan kebudayaan Islam dikembangkan ke daerah
pedalaman oleh para ulama. Berdasarkan bukti-bukti yang ditemukan di Indonesia,
para ahli menafsirkan bahwa agama dan kebudayaan islam diperkirakan masuk ke
Indonesia pada sekitar abad ke 7 M, yaitu pada masa kekuasaan kerajaan
Sriwijaya. Penafsiran para ahli ini diperkuat dengan berita-berita pada masa
itu telah terdapat pedagang-pedagang Arab yang melakukan aktifitas perdagangan
di Kerajaan Sriwijaya, bahkan mereka telah memiliki perkampungan tempat tinggal
sementara dipusat Kerajaan Sriwijaya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pendapat lain membuktikan bahwa
agama dan kebudayaan Islam masuk ke wilayah Indonesia dibawa oleh para pedagang
Islam dari Gujarat (India). Hal ini dilihat dari penemuan unsur-unsur Islam di
Indonesia yang memiliki persamaan dengan India seperti batu nisan yang dibuat
oleh orang-orang Kambay, Gujarat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Berdasarkan bukti-bukti ini para
ahli membuat sebuah kesimpulan bahwa agama dan kebudayaan Islam telah masuk ke
Indonesia pada abad ke 7 M dibawa para pedagang dari Arab. Persia dan India
(Gujarat) dan berkembang secara nyata sekitar abad ke 13 M.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Penyebaran Islam di Indonesia dilakukan
melalui perdagangan, perkawinan, politik, kesenian, pendidikan, dan tasawuf.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Perdagangan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sejak abad ke 7 M para pedagang Islam dari Arab, Persia dan
India secara tidak langsung telah ikut menyampaikan dan mengajarkan agama dan
budaya Islam kepada orang lain termasuk masyarakat Indonesia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Perkawinan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Para pedagang Islam menjalin hubungan baik dengan kaum
pribumi dan terkadang diteruskan dengan adanya perkawinan antara putri kaum pribumi
dengan para pedagang islam.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Politik</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pengaruh kekuasaan seorang raja sangat besar peranannya
dalam proses Islamisasi. Ketika seorang raja memeluk agama Islam maka rakyat
juga akan mengikuti jejak rajanya. Setelah tersosialisasinya agama islam, maka kepentingan
politik dilakukan melalui perluasan wilayah kerajaan, yang diikuti pula dengan
penyebaran agama Islam. Contohnya, Sultan Demak mengirimkan pasukannya untuk
menduduki wilayah Jawa Barat dan memerintahkanuntuk menyebarkan agama Islam.
Pasukan itu dipimpin oleh Fatahillah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pendidikan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Para ulama, guru-guru, ataupun para Kyai juga memiliki
peranan yang cukup penting dalam penyebarkan agama dan budaya Islam. Meraka
menyebarkan agama Islam melalui bidang pendidikan, yaitu dengan mendirikan
pondok-pondok pesantren.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kesenian</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Saluran kesenian dapat dilakukan dengan mengadakan
pertunjukkan seni gamelan seperti yang terjadi di Yogyakarta, Solo, Cirebon,
dan lain-lain. Seni gamelan ini dapat mengundang masyarakat untuk berkumpul dan
selanjutnya dilaksankan dakwah-dakwah keagamaan. Disamping seni gamelan juga
terdapat seni wayang. Melalui cerita-cerita wayang itu para ulama menyisipkan
ajaran agama Islam. Contohnya: Sunan Kalijaga memanfatkan seni wayang untuk
proses Islamisasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tasawuf</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Para ahli tasawuf hidup dalam kesederhanaan, mereka selalu
berusaha untuk menghayati kehidupan masyarakatnya dan hidup bersama
ditengah-tengah masyarakatnya. Para ahli tasawuf ini biasanya memiliki keahlian
yang dapat membantu kehidupan masyarakat, diantaranya ahli dalam menyembuhkan
penyakit. Penyebaran agama-agama islam yang mereka lakukan disesuaikan dengan
kondisi, dalam pikiran, dan budaya masyarakat pada masa itu, sehingga
ajaran-ajaran Islam dapat mudah diterima oleh masyarakat. Contoh ahli tasawwuf
antara lain Hamzah Fansuri di Aceh dan Sunan Panggung di Jawa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Islam dapat diterima dan berkembang
pesat sejak sekitar abad ke 13 M. Alasanya adalah sebagai berikut :</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Islam merupakan agama yang bersifat terbuka karena penyebaran
islam dilakukan secara damai dan tanpa paksaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Islam tidak membedakan kedudukan seseorang dalam masyarakat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Acara ritual dalam agama Islam dilakukan dengan sangat
sederhana.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ajaran Islam berupaya untuk menciptakan kesejahteraan
kehidupan masyarakat dengan adanya kewajiban zakat bagi yang memiliki harta.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 18.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Selain para pedagang, raja, bangsawan dan para
penguasa lainnya, proses penyebaran Islam di Indonesia pun tidak lepas dari
peranan besar para ulama yang tergabung dalam kelompok para wali, yang dikenal
dengan nama “Wali Songo” atau Wali Sembilan, yang terdiri dari : Sunan Maulana
Malik Ibrahim, Sunan Ampel, Sunan Bonang, Sunan Drajat, Sunan Giri, Sunan
Kudus, Sunan Kalijaga, Sunan Muria, dan Sunan Gunung jati. Dalam menyebarkan
ajaran islam, para wali ini menyebar di seluruh Indonesia terutama Pulau jawa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Problema atau hambatan
dalam menyebarkan agama Islam di Indonesia, di sebabkan oleh:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Masyarakat
Indonesia pada masa itu masih kental dengan pengaruh agama Hindu.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Seperti yang kita ketahui, setelah zaman prasejarah
berakhir, di Indonesia lahir kebudayaan baru. Kebudayaan tersebut ditandai
dengan datangnya orang-orang India sebagai pembawa kebudayaan Hindu yang
membawa pengaruh dan menyebabkan perubahan cara hidup masyarakat Indonesia baik
dalam tatacara hidup kemasyarakatan, perekonomian, dan keagamaan.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Masyarakat
Indonesia pada masa itu umumnya masih menganut kepercayaan kepada nenek moyang
( Animisme )</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR PUSTAKA</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://serbasejarah.blogspot.com/2011/11/penyebaran-islam-di-nusantara.html"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://serbasejarah.blogspot.com/2011/11/<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">penyebaran-islam-di-nusantara</i>.html</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://serbasejarah.blogspot.com/2011/12/proses-awal-kedatangan-islam-ke.html"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://serbasejarah.blogspot.com/2011/12/<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">proses-awal-kedatangan-islam-ke-indonesia</i>.html</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hasan,
Said. H, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Materi pokok pendidikan IPS 2, </i>Jakarta:
Universitas Terbuka, Depdikbud, 1996.</span></div>
Mira Nurlatifahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12863922507205527729noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2356466174949427472.post-56850179069220883762013-06-10T05:17:00.000-07:002013-06-10T05:17:19.869-07:00Definisi Desa, Kota, Pedesaan dan Perkotaan<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi
Desa</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Desa
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biasanya tidak terlalu luas dan dihuni oleh sejumlah keluarga. Mayoritas
penduduknya bekerja di bidang agraris dan tingkat pendidikannya cenderung
rendah. Karena jumlah penduduknya tidak begitu banyak, maka biasanya hubungan
kekerabatan antar masyarakatnya terjalin kuat. Para masyarakatnya juga masih
percaya dan memegang teguh adat dan tradisi yang ditinggalkan para leluhur
mereka.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Berikut ini adalah pengertian dan definisi
desa menurut UU dan Para ahli:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">UU
No. 5 Tahun 1979</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Desa
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masyarakat termasuk di dalamnya kesatuan masyarakat dan hukum yang mempunyai
organisasi pemerintahan terendah langsung di bawah camat dan berhak
menyelenggarakan rumah tangganya sendiri dalam ikatan Negara Kesatuan Republik
Indonesia</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sutarjo
Kartodikusumo</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Desa
adalah suatu kesatuan hukum di mana bertempat tinggal suatu masyarakat yang
berkuasa mengadakan pemerintahan sendiri</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Paul
H. Landis</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Desa
adalah suatu wilayah yang penduduknya kurang dari 2.500 jiwa dengan ciri - ciri
sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mempunyai pergaulan hidup yang saling
mengenal</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya ikatan perasaan yang sama tentang
kebiasaan</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Cara berusaha bersifat agraris dan
sangat dipengaruhi oleh faktor - faktor alam, misalnya iklim, topografi, dan
sumber daya alam</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">R.
Bintarto</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menurut
tinjauan geografi yang dikemukakan, desa merupakan suatu hasil perwujudan
geografis yang ditimbulkan oleh unsur - unsur fisiologis, sosial, ekonomi,
politik, dan kultural yang terdapat di suatu daerah serta memiliki hubungan
timbal balik dengan daerah lain</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PP
NO. 72 Tahun 2005</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Desa
adalah kesatuan masyarakat hukum yang memiliki batas - batas wilayah dan
memiliki kewenangan untu mengatur serta mengurus kepentingan masyarakat
setempat yang diakui dan dihormati dalam sistem Negara Kesatuan Republik
Indonesia</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi
Kota</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Secara
umum kota adalah tempat bermukimnya warga kota, tempat bekerja, tempat kegiatan
dalam bidang ekonomi, pemerintah dan lain-lain. Dengan kata lain, Kota adalah
suatu ciptaan peradaban budaya umat manusia. Kota sebagai hasil dari peradaban
yang lahir dari pedesaan, tetapi kota berbeda dengan pedesaan, karena
masyarakat kota merupakan suatu kelompok teritorial di mana penduduknya
menyelenggarakan kegiatan-kegiatan hidup sepenuhnya, dan juga merupakan suatu
kelompok terorganisasi yang tinggal secara kompak di wilayah tertentu dan
memiliki derajat interkomuniti yang tinggi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari
segi perancangan, Kota merupakan kawasan pemukiman yang secara fisik
ditunjukkan oleh kumpulan rumah-rumah yang mendominasi tata ruangnya dan
memiliki berbagai fasilitas untuk mendukung kehidupan warganya secara mandiri.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi
Kota menurut beberapa istilah dan Para ahli :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1.
Menurut Prof. Bintarto (1984:36)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari
segi geografis kota diartikan sebagai suatu sistim jaringan kehidupan yang
ditandai dengan kepadatan penduduk yang tinggi dan diwarnai dengan strata
ekonomi yang heterogen dan bercorak materialistis atau dapat pula diartikan
sebagai bentang budaya yang ditimbulkan oleh unsur-unsur alami dan non alami
dengan gejala-gejala pemusatan penduduk yang cukup besar dengan corak kehidupan
yang bersifat heterogen dan materialistis dibandingkan dengan daerah
dibelakangnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Menurut Louis Wirth</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kota
adalah pemukiman yang relatif besar, padat dan permanen, dihuni oleh
orang-orang yang heterogen kedudukan sosialnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">3.
Menurut Peraturan Mendagri RI No. 4/ 1980</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kota
adalah suatu wadah yang memiliki batasan administrasi wilayah seperti kotamadya
dan kota administratif. Kota juga berarati suatu lingkungan kehidupan perkotaan
yang mempunyai ciri non agraris , misalnya ibukota kabupaten, ibukota kecamatan
yang berfungsi sebagai pusat pertumbuhan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">4.
Pengertian Kota Menurut Amos Rappoport</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pengertian
kota menurut Amos Rappoport dibagi menjadi dua definisi, yaitu definisi klasik
dan definisi moderen.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">a.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Definisi klasik</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kota
adalah Suatu<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>permukiman yang relatif
besar, padat dan permanen , terdiri dari kelompok individu-indivudu yang
heterogen dari segi sosial.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">b.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Definisi Modern</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kota
adalah Suatu Permukiman dirumuskan bukan dari ciri morfolgi kota tetapi dari
suatu fungsi yang menciptakan ruang-ruang efektif melalui pengorganisasian
ruang dan hirarki tertentu</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi
Perkotaan</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kawasan
perkotaan (urban) adalah wilayah yang mempunyai kegiatan utama bukan pertanian
dengan susunan fungsi kawasan sebagai tempat permukiman perkotaan, pemusatan
dan distribusi pelayanan jasa pemerintahan, pelayanan sosial, dan kegiatan
ekonomi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kawasan
perkotaan yang besar dengan jumlah penduduk di atas satu juta orang dan
berdekatan dengan kota satelit disebut sebagai metropolitan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi
Pedesaan</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kawasan
perdesaan (rural) adalah wilayah yang mempunyai kegiatan utama pertanian,
termasuk pengelolaan sumber daya alam dengan susunan fungsi kawasan sebagai
tempat permukiman perdesaan, pelayanan jasa, pemerintahan, pelayanan sosial,
dan kegiatan ekonomi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ciri kawasan pedesaan</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kepadatan penduduk rendah</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kegiatan di pedesaan didominasi oleh
kegiatan pertanian tanaman keras, tanaman tumpang sari, peternakan sapi,
kambing, unggas, kolam ikan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Masih banyak ditemukan hewan liar
seperti burung, tikus, tupai, ular dan lain sebagainya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Penduduk terkonsentrasi dalam bentuk
kluster yang disebut desa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hubungan sosial masyarakat masih sangat
akrab dan saling bantu.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">E.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Perbedaan
dan Persamaan Desa dan Pedesaan </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Desa
merupakan satu wilayah yang tidak terlalu luas dan dihuni oleh sejumlah
keluarga. Sedangkan pedesaan memiliki cakupan yang lebih luas, pedesaan
merupakan satu wilayah dimana didalam nya terdiri dari beberapa desa. Persamaan
antara desa dan pedesaan yaitu mayoritas penduduknya bekerja di bidang agraris
dan tingkat pendidikannya cenderung rendah. Karena jumlah penduduknya tidak
begitu banyak, maka biasanya hubungan kekerabatan antar masyarakatnya terjalin
kuat. Para masyarakatnya juga masih percaya dan memegang teguh adat dan tradisi
yang ditinggalkan para leluhur mereka.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">F.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Perbedaan
dan Persamaan Kota dan Perkotaan</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kota
merupakan suatu wilayah yang luas, tempat bermukimnya penduduk dengan beragam
profesi serta pertumbuhan ekonominya yang cepat dan dikota terdapat berbagai
macam pelayanan baik jasa maupun barang serta kota biasanya merupakan pusat
pemerintahan. Sedangkan perkotaan merupakan kawasan yang besar dengan jumlah
penduduk di atas satu juta orang dan berdekatan dengan kota satelit disebut
sebagai metropolitan. Sebenarnya antara kota dan perkotaan memiliki pengertian
yang sama, yakni suatu wilayah yang luas dan tingkat penduduknya yang tinggi,
akan tetapi yang membedakannya adalah perkotaan itu merujuk pada ciri-ciri dan
sifatnya. Perkotaan mengacu pada areal yang memiliki suasana penghidupan dan
kehidupan modern dan menjadi wewenang pemerintah kota.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">G.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Perbedaan dan ciri-ciri antara Desa
dan Kota</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam
masyarakat modern, sering dibedakan antara masyarakat pedesaan (rural
community) dan masyarakat perkotaan (urban community). Menurut Soekanto (1994),
per-bedaan tersebut sebenarnya tidak mempunyai hubungan dengan pengertian
masyarakat sederhana, karena dalam masyarakat modern, betapa pun kecilnya suatu
desa, pasti ada pengaruh-pengaruh dari kota. Perbedaan masyarakat pedesaan dan
masyarakat perkotaan, pada hakekatnya bersifat gradual.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kita
dapat membedakan antara masyarakat desa dan masyarakat kota yang masing-masing
punya karakteristik tersendiri. Masing-masing punya sistem yang mandiri, dengan
fungsi-fungsi sosial, struktur serta proses-proses sosial yang sangat berbeda,
bahkan kadang-kadang dikatakan “berlawanan” pula. Perbedaan ciri antara kedua
sistem tersebut dapat diungkapkan secara singkat menurut Poplin (1972) sebagai
berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Masyarakat Desa :</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1).Perilaku
homogen (bersama-sama)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2).Perilaku
yang dilandasi oleh konsep kekeluargaan dan kebersamaan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">3).Perilaku
yang berorientasi pada tradisi dan status .</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">4).Isolasi
sosial, sehingga statik</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">5).Kesatuan
dan keutuhan kultural</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">6).Banyak
ritual dan nilai-nilai sakral</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">7).
Kolektivisme</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Masyarakat Kota :</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1).
Perilaku heterogen (masing-masing)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2).Perilaku
yang dilandasi oleh konsep pengandalan diri dan kelembagaan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">3).Perilaku
yang berorientasi pada rasionalitas dan fungsi</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">4).Mobilitassosial,sehingga
dinamik.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">5).Kebauran
dan diversifikasi kultural</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">6).Birokrasi
fungsional dan nilai-nilai sekular </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">7).Individualisme</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Warga
suatu masyarakat pedesaan mempunyai hubungan yang lebih erat dan lebih mendalam
bila dibandingkan hubungan mereka dengan warga masyarakat pedesaan lainnya.
Sistem kehidupan biasanya berkelompok atas dasar sistem kekeluargaan (Soekanto,
1994). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Golongan
orang-orang tua pada masyarakat pedesaan umumnya memegang peranan penting.
Orang akan selalu meminta nasihat kepada mereka apabila ada kesulitan-kesulitan
yang dihadapi. Nimpoeno (1992) menyatakan bahwa di daerah pedesaan
kekuasaan-kekuasaan pada umumnya terpusat pada individu seorang kyai, ajengan,
lurah dan sebagainya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sumber : </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<a href="http://carapedia.com/pengertian_definisi_desa_info2128.html"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://carapedia.com/pengertian_definisi_desa_info2128.html</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b><a href="http://bagusxplano.wordpress.com/2011/10/06/definisi-kota/"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://bagusxplano.wordpress.com/2011/10/06/definisi-kota/</span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawasan_perkotaan"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawasan_perkotaan</span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawasan_perdesaan"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawasan_perdesaan</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
Mira Nurlatifahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12863922507205527729noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2356466174949427472.post-40397885195057936702013-06-10T04:26:00.002-07:002013-06-10T04:26:41.342-07:00HAKIKAT DAN KARAKTERISTIK KONSEP DASAR IPS<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hakikat Konsep Dasar IPS</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pada kenyataannya, perkembangan hidup
seseorang mulai dari saat ia lahir sampai menjadi dewasa tidak dapat terlepas
dari masyarakat. Kehidupan sosial manusia di masyarakat meliputi aspek-aspek
hubungan sosial, ekonomi, psikologi, budaya, sejarah, geografi dan politik.
Karena setiap aspek kehidupan sosial itu mencakup lingkup yang luas, maka cara
mempelajari dan mengkajinya harus menggunakan bidang-bidang ilmu yang khusus. Melalui
ilmu-ilmu sosial itu pula dikembangkan bidang-bidang ilmu tertentu sesuai
dengan aspek kehidupan sosial masing-masing.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Dalam bidang pengetahuan sosial ada 3 istilah yang
sudah biasa kita dengar, yaitu :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ilmu
sosial (Social Sciences)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pendekatan yang digunakan dalam Ilmu Sosial bersifat
interdisipliner yaitu hanya ditinjau dari satu rumpun pelajaran saja. Contohnya
disiplin ilmu Antropologi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Studi
Sosial (Social Studies)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Studi Sosial bukanlah suatu bidang
keilmuan atau disiplin bidang akademis, tetapi merupakan suatu bidang yang
mengkaji tentang gejala dan masalah sosial yang terjadi pada masyarakat. Karena
bukan merupakan bidang keilmuan kerangka kerja Studi Sosial ini tidak
menekankan pada bidang teoritis, namun lebih kepada bidang-bidang praktis.
Pendekatan yang digunakan dalam Studi Sosial bersifat Interdisipliner atau
bersifat multidisipliner dengan menggunakan berbagai bidang keilmuan. Studi
Sosial sifatnya lebih mendasar karena dapat disajikan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>kepada tingkat yang lebih rendah, mulai dari
tingkat Sekolah Dasar sampai ke tingkat pendidian yang lebih tinggi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">3.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ilmu
Pengetahuan Sosial (IPS)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">IPS lebih menekankan kepada pendekatan
multidisipliner atau interdisipliner dari bidang ilmunya masing-masing. Yaitu
pendekatan yang komprehensif dari berbagai rumpun pelajaran. Seperti ilmu
hukum, ilmu politik, ilmu ekonomi, ilmu sosial lain seperti Geogafi, Sejarah,
Antropologi, dan lainnya. Topik-topik dalam IPS dapat dimanipulasi menjadi
suatu isu, pertanyaan atau permasalahan yang bersudut pandang
interdisiplin.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Misalnya, di dalam
Geografi tentang perusakan lingkungan, dampak dari perusakan lingkungan ini
dapat dikaji secara Ekonomi, Sosial kemasyarakatan, Politik, Hukum dan lainnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Dalam<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>hal ini
kita dapat melihat keseluruhan IPS sebagai sarana pendidikan yang memaparkan
manusia di dalam segi tiga waktu-ruang-hidup. Sebagaimana studi Sejarah yang
membicarakan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Man in Time”, Geografi
membicarakan “Man in Space” dan gabungan dari Sosiologi, Antropologi, Ekonomi,
dan Tata Negara yang membicarakan “Man in Life”. Apabila digambarkan hubungan
ketiganya adalah transmisi budaya, adaptasi ekologis, dan perjuangan hidup.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Selain ke-3 istilah diatas, ada istilah lain yang
kadang-kadang digunakan dalam menyebut bidang studi IPS yaitu : Social Education
dan Social Learning. Kedua istilah ini menurut Cheppy lebih menitikberatkan
kepada berbagai pengalaman di sekolah yang dipandang dapat membantu anak didik
mampu bersosialisasi di masyarakat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Terdapat perbedaan antara Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial
(IPS) sebagai bidang studi dengan disiplin ilmu-ilmu sosial (Social Sciences)
antara lain :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>IPS
bukan sebagai disiplin ilmu seperti Ilmu-ilmu sosial (IIS), tetapi IPS lebih
tepat sebagai suatu bidang kajian. Yaitu kajian tentang masalah-masalah
kemasyarakatan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Pendekatan yang dilakukan IPS adalah pendekatan multidisipliner atau
interdisipliner, sedangkan IIS menggunakan pendekatan disiplin ilmu atau
monodisiplin.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">3.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>IPS
sengaja dirancang untuk kepentingan pendidikan, karena itu keberadaannya lebih
memfokuskan pada dunia persekolahan. Sedangkan IIS keberadaannya bisa di dunia
persekolahan, perguruan tinggi, bahkan juga<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>dipelajari di masyarakat umum.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">4.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>IPS
disamping menggunakan IIS sebagai bahan pengembangan materi pembelajaran
dilengkapi dengan mempertimbangkan aspek psikologis-pedagogis. Selain itu IPS
juga sangat memperhatikan dan mempertimbangkan kemanfaatan, urutan, dan ruang
lingkup bahan bagi setiap peserta didik dalam hidup dan untuk mempersiapkan
kehidupannya kelak. Tidak seperti halnya IIS yang tidak mempermasalahkan
pertimbangan-pertimbangan tersebut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Pembelajaran IPS disekolah bertujuan untuk
mempersiapkan para peserta didik sebagai warga negara yang menguasai
pengetahuan, keterampilan, sikaf dan nilai yang dapat digunakan sebagai kemampuan
untuk memecahkan masalah pribadi atau sosial serta mampu mengambil keputusan
dan berpartisipasi dalam berbagai kegiatan kemasyarakatan sehingga ia sadar
akan tanggung jawab terhadap hak dan kewajiban kepada masyarakat, bangsa, dan
negara.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Karakteristik Konsep Dasar IPS</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Tujuan utama setiap pembelajaran Ilmu
Sosial adalah membentuk warga negara yang baik (god citizenship), demikian pula
IPS memiliki tujuan yang sama, namun dalam proses penyajiannya IPS memiliki
karakteristik tersendiri, dalam arti tidak sama dengan karakteristik Ilmu-ilmu
sosial.walaupun demikian keberadaan ilmu-ilmu sosial tidak dapat dipisahkan
dari IPS karena konsep-konsep Ilmu Sosial merupakan sumber utama bagi
pengembangan materi pembelajaran IPS.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Ruang lingkup IPS tidak lain adalah kehidupan sosial
manusia di masyarakat. Masyarakat inilah yang menjadi sumber utama IPS. Aspek
kehidupan sosial apapun yang kita pelajari, apakah itu hubungan sosial,
ekonomi, budaya, kejiwaan, sejarah, geografi, atau politik bersumber dari masyarakat.
Oleh karena itu, tugas seorang pembelajar adalah membelajarkan peserta didik
dalam rangka meningkatkan kompetensi yang telah para peserta didik miliki, hal
ini mengandung arti bahwa peserta didik telah memiliki pengetahuan
masing-masing sesuai dengan pengalaman dan penghayatannya selama mereka tinggal
di masyarakat. Dalam upaya memanusiakan manusia (peserta didik) proses
pembelajaran pendidikan IPS dilakukan secara bertahap dan berkesinambungan
sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan tingkat usia peserta didik masing-masing.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Ada 3 aspek yang dikaji dalam proses pendidikan Ilmu
Pengetahuan Sosial (IPS), yaitu :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Memberikan berbagai pengertian yang mendasar ( Kognitif )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Melatih berbagai keterampilan ( Psikomotor )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">3.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Mengembangkan sikap moral yang dibutuhkan ( Apektif )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Karakteristik IPS diantaranya :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">1.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Integrated
( terpadu )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">2.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Interdisipliner
( dapat dikaji dari satu bidang ilmu pengetahuan )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">3.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Multidisipliner ( dapat dikaji dari berbagai bidang keilmuan / rumpun
pelajaran )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">4.Psiko pedagogis ( kajian IPS harus
mempertimbangkan kemampuan berfikir siswa dengan memperhatikan psikologi
perkembangan mereka )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">5.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cross
disipliner ( menyilangkan satu mata pelajaran dengan mata pelajaran lain yang
relevan )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">6.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Social
learning ( dalam IPS harus ada aspek ilmu yang bisa dipelajari )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">7.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Social
education ( dalam IPS harus ada ilmu yang bisa diambil )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">8.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Synthetic discipline</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">9.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Scientific boundary line</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">10.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kajian
sistematik</span></div>
Mira Nurlatifahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12863922507205527729noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2356466174949427472.post-57398175984832491422013-06-09T21:54:00.001-07:002013-06-09T22:01:09.363-07:0018 Karakter Bangsa<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><b>1. Religius</b> : Sikap dan perilaku yang patuh dalam
melaksanakan ajaran agama yang dianutnya, toleran terhadap pelaksanaan ibadah agama
lain, dan selalu hidup rukun dengan pemeluk agama lain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><b>2. Jujur</b> : Perilaku yang didasarkan pada upaya
menjadikan dirinya sebagai orang yang dapat dipercaya dalam perkataan, tindakan
dan pekerjaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><b>3. Toleransi</b> : Sikap dan tindakan yang menghargai
perbedaan agama, suku, etnis, pendapat, sikap dan tindakan orang lain yang
berbeda dari dirinya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><b>4. Disiplin</b> : Tindakan yang menunjukan perilaku
tertib dan patuh pada berbagai ketentuan dan peraturan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><b>5. Kerja Keras</b> : Perilaku yang menunjukan upaya
sungguh- sungguh dalam mengatasi berbagai hambatan belajar dan tugas, serta
menyelesaikan tugas dengan sebaik-baiknya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><b>6. Kreatif </b>: Berpikir dan melakukan sesuatu untuk
menghasilkan cara atau hasil baru dari sesuatu yang telah dimiliki.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><b>7. Mandiri</b> : Sikap dan perilaku yang tidak mudah
tergantung pada orang lain dalam menyelesaikan tugas- tugas.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><b>8. Demokratis</b> : Cara berpikir, bersikap dan
bertindak yang menilai sama hak dan kewajiban dirinya dan orang lain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><b>9. Rasa Ingin Tahu</b> : Sikap dan tindakan yang selalu
berupaya untuk mengetahui lebih mendalam dan meluas dari sesuatu yang
dipelajari, dilihat dan didengar.</span></div>
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<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi
Pendidikan</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pendidikan
menurut para ahli :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pendidikan
menurut Langeveld [1]</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pendidikan
ialah setiap usaha, pengaruh, perlindungan dan bantuan yang diberikan kepada
anak yang tertuju kepada pendewasaan anak itu, atau lebih tepat dikatakan
membantu anak agar cukup cakap dalam melaksanakan tugas hidupnya sendiri.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pendidikan
menurut Ki Hajar Dewantara [2]</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pendidikan
yaitu tuntutan di dalam hidup tumbuhnya anak-anak, adapun maksudnya, pendidikan
yaitu menuntun segala kekuatan kodrat yang ada pada anak-anak itu, agar mereka
sebagai manusia dan sebagai anggota masyarakat dapat mencapai keselamatan dan
kebahagiaan yang setinggi -tingginya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pendidikan
menurut Driyarkara [3]</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pendidikan adalah
pemanusiaan manusia muda atau pengangkatan manusia muda ke dalam taraf<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>insani.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Rujukan
:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[1]
Langeveld (terj.), 1971. Paedagogik Teoritis / Sistematis. Jakarta : FIP-IKIP</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[2]
Suwarno. 1985. Pengantar Umum Pendidikan. Aksara Baru. Jakarta.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">[3]
Driyarkara. 1950. Driyarkara Tentang Pendidikan. Yayasan Kanisius, Yogyakarta.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi
IPS (Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial)</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">IPS
(Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial) menurut para ahli :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Somantri
(Sapriya:2008:9) </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">IPS
adalah penyederhanaan atau disiplin ilmu ilmu sosial humaniora serta kegiatan
dasar manusia yang diorganisasikan dan disajikan secara ilmiah dan
pedagogis/psikologis untuk tujuan pendidikan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2.0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mulyono
Tj. (1980:8) </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">IPS adalah suatu
pendekatan interdisipliner (inter-disciplinary approach) dari pelajaran
ilmu-ilmu soial, seperti sosiologi antropologi budaya, psikologi sosial,
sejarah, geografi, ekonomi, politik, dan sebagainya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 219.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Moeljono
Cokrodikarjo </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">IPS
adalah perwujudan dari suatu pendekatan interdisipliner dari ilmu sosial, IPS
merupakan intergrasi dari berbagai cabang ilmu sosial yakni sosiologi,
antropologi budaya, psikologi, sejarah, geografi, ekonomi, ilmu politik dan
ekologi manusia yang diformulasikan untuk tujuan intruksional dengan materi dan
tujuan yang disederhanakan agar mudah dipelajari.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi
Pendidikan IPS (Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial)</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pendidikan
IPS (Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial) menurut para ahli :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Nu’man
Soemantri </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pendidikan
IPS terbagi menjadi 2, yakni Pendidikan IPS di persekolahan dan Pendidikan IPS
di perguruan tinggi. Pengertian Pendidikan IPS yang berlaku untuk pendidikan
dasar dan menengah adalah penyederhanaan/adaptasi dari disiplin ilmu-ilmu
sosial dan humaniora, serta kegiatan dasar manusia yang diorganisasikan dan
disajikan secara ilmiah dan paedagogis/psikologis untuk tujuan pendidikan. Yang
dimaksud dengan penyederhanaan diatas adalah tingkat kesukaran bahan sesuai
dengan tingkat kecerdassan dan minat peserta didik. Sedangkan pengertian
Pendidikan IPS yang berlaku untuk perguruan tinggi adalah seleksi dari
disiplin-disiplin ilmu sosial dan humaniora, serta kegiatan dasar manusia yang
diorganisasikan dan disajikan secara ilmiah dan paedagogis/psikologis untuk
tujuan pendidikan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dr.
Nursid Sumaatmadja</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pendidikan IPS adalah suatu mata
pelajaran yang kajiannya fokus pada seperangkat peristiwa, fakta, konsep, dan
generalisasi yang berkaitan dengan isu sosial.</span></div>
Mira Nurlatifahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12863922507205527729noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2356466174949427472.post-41296236990864277522013-06-09T05:52:00.000-07:002013-06-09T17:57:06.418-07:00Konsep Pendidikan IPS di Indonesia dan Perkembangannya<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembahasan
tentang pendidikan IPS tidak bisa dilepaskan dari interaksi fungsional
perkembangan masyarakat Indonesia dengan sistem dan praktis pendidikannya.
Interaksi fungsional disini adalah bagaimana perkembangan masyarakat
mengimplikasi terhadap tubuh pengetahuan pendidikan IPS dan bagaimana tubuh pengetahuan
pendidikan IPS turut memfasilitasi pengembangan aktor sosial dan warga negara
yang cerdas dan baik, yang dapat memberikan kontribusi yang bermakna terhadap
perkembangan masyarakat Indonesia. Pemikiranm mengenai konsep pendidikan IPS di
Indonesia banyak dipengaruhi oleh pemikiran “Social Studies” di Amerika Serikat.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Konsep “Social Studies” secara umum berkembang
di Amerika Serikat yang merupakan salah satu negara yang telah menujukkan
reputasi akademis dalam bidang sosial, seperti dengan berdirinya National
Council for The Social Studies (NCSS) pada tanggal 20-30 November 1935. dalam
pertemuan ini, disepakati bahwa “Social Science as the Core of the Curriculum”
yaitu menempatkan bahwa social studies sebagai core curriculum. Sedangkan pada
tahun 1937, pilar historis-epiostemologis, social studies yang pertama, berupa
suatu definisi tentang “Social Studies” yang berawal dari Edgar Bruce Wesley
yaitu The Social Studies Are The Social Sciences Simplified Pedagogical Purpose
yang artinya bahwa “The Social Studies” adalah ilmu-ilmu sosial yang
disederhanakan untuk tujuan pendidikan. Kemudian dikembangkan bahwa social
studies berisikan aspek-aspek ilmu sejarah, ilmu ekonomi, ilmu politik,
sosiologi, antropologi, psikologi, ilmu geografi dan filsafat. Berdasarkan
pengamatan Edgar Bruce Wesley selama 40-an tahun bahwa bidang social studies
mengalami perkembangan dengan adanya ketakmenentuanm ketakberkeputusan,
ketakbersatuan, dan ketakmajuan terutama pada tahun 1940-1970-an.</span></div>
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Konsep
Pendidikan IPS di Indonesia secara historis epistemologis terasa sangat sukar
karena dua alasan, pertama di Indonesia belum ada lembaga profesional bidang
IPS sekuat pengaruh NSCC dan kedua, pembelajaran IPS sangat tergantung pada
pemikiran individual atau kelompok pakar. Istilah IPS (Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial)
pertama kalinya muncul dalam seminar Nasional tentang Civic Education pada
tahun 972 di Tawangmangu Solo, menurut laporan tersebut seminar (Panitia
Seminar Nasional Education Civic, 1972:2, dalam Winataputra, 1978:42) ada 3
istilah yang muncul dan digunakan secara bertukar pakai (interchangeably),
yakni : 1. Pengetahuan Sosial, 2.Studi Sosial, dan 3. Ilmu Pengetahuan sosial. </div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
Konsep IPS pertama kalinya masuk ke dalam dunia persekolahan pada tahun 1972-1973 yakni dalam Kurikulum Proyek Perintis sekolah Pembangunan (PPSP) IKIP Bandung. Dalam kurikulum SD 8 tahun PPSP digunakan istilah, Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan/ Social Studies sebagai mata pelajaran sosial terpadu.</div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
Dalam kurikulum 1975 Pendidikan IPS menampilkan empat profil, yaitu : Pendidikan Moral Pancasila menggantikan Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan yang mewadahi tradisi "Citizehship transmission". Pendidikan IPS terpadu untuk SD, pendidikan IPS terkonfederasi untuk SMP, pendidikan IPS terpisah-[isah yang mencakup mata pelajaran sejarah, geografi, dan ekonomi untuk SMA.</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dilihat
dari perkembangan pemikiran yang berkembang di Indonesia sampai saat ini
pendidikan IPS terpilah dalam dua arah yaitu : PIPS untuk dunia persekolahan
yang pada dasarnya merupakan penyederhanaan dari ilmu-ilmu sosial dan humaniora
yang diorganisasikan secara psiko-pedagogis untuk tujuan pendidikan
persekolahan. PDIPS untuk perguruan tinggi pendidikan guru IPS yang merupakan
penyeleksian secara ilmiah dan meta psiko pedagogis dari ilmu sosial humaniora
dan disiplin lain yang relevan untuk tujuan pendidikan profesional guru IPS.</span></div>
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<![endif]-->Mira Nurlatifahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12863922507205527729noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2356466174949427472.post-66715425526111193332013-05-30T20:32:00.002-07:002013-06-09T18:00:05.632-07:00Analisis Video<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">1). Analisis
Video Mengenai Tawuran Pelajar </span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tawuran antar pelajar
akhir-akhir ini memang marak terjadi, kata tawuran sudah tidak asing lagi
dikalangan pelajar, terutama dikalangan pelajar SMA, tawuran pun tidak hanya
terjadi dikota-kota besar saja, tapi di desa pun tawuran pelajar kerap terjadi.
Tawuran sepertinya sudah berubah menjadi satu hobi dan kebiasaan yang menjadi
warisan turun temurun dan sangat sulit dihentikan.Tawuran sulit dihentikan
karena tawuran diturunkan dari kakak kelas kepada adik kelasnya, dengan
ditunjang dengan kurangnya pengawasan dari pihak sekolah. Akan tetapi dikarenakan
tawuran biasanya terjadi setelah sekolah usai, banyak sekolah berpendapat bahwa
itu bukan lagi wewenang dari pihak sekolah, karena tawuran terjadi di luar jam
pelajaran, padahal hal itu salah besar. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pihak
sekolah seharusnya berperan amat besar dalam mencegah tawuran tersebut, karena
kebanyakan tawuran terjadi disebabkan oleh masalah sepele yang sudah lama
(berlarut-larut) antara pelajar suatu sekolah dengan pelajar sekolah lain. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Dalam video tersebut
terlihat bahwa dua kelompok pelajar saling kejar mengejar di area umum
yakni<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>jalan raya,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mereka sama sekali tidak memperdulikan
keselamatan jiwa orang lain dan bahkan dirinya sendiri. Saling melempar batu, memukul
dengan menggunakan bambu dan yang lebih parah mereka pun <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>menggunakan berbagai macam senjata tajam.
Menurut saya, pelajar yang sering terlibat tawuran itu terjadi karena mereka belum
memenuhi dan mencapai tujuan pendidikan yang seharusnya. Menurut klasifikasi
hasil/tujuan belajar Teori Taksonomi Bloom (Benyamin Bloom - 1956) tujuan
pendidikan terbagi ke dalam 3 aspek yakni Kognitif (pengetahuan dan
keterampilan berfikir), Afektif (sikap, emosi dan minat) serta Psikomotor
(keterampilan motorik). Dan yang paling berperan dalam menerapkan ketiga aspek
tersebut kepada pelajar adalah pihak sekolah dengan dibantu oleh keluarga terutama
orang tua. Pihak sekolah harus berkerja sama dengan orang tua untuk dapat
mewujudkan ketiga aspek tersebut. Tawuran memang sangat sulit dihentikan, akan
tetapi menurut saya tawuran bisa dicegah. Dalam segi kognitif <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>yang mana dalam hal ini siswa dituntut untuk
dapat memiliki berbagai macam pengetahuan seharusnya bukan hanya pengetahuan
yang merujuk pada akademiknya saja, akan tetapi harus seimbang dengan
pengetahuan mengenai kehidupan sehari-hari, selain itu tawuran bisa di cegah
dengan cara memberikan pengetahuan kepada siswa seperti materi mengenai
bahayanya tawuran, kerugian jika kita melakukan tawuran, serta materi-materi
lain yang berhubungan dengan tawuran, selain itu pendidikan agama dan moral pun
harus lebih ditingkatkan. Selain aspek kognitif, yang lebih penting dalam upaya
mencegah terjadinya tawuran adalah harus terwujudnya aspek afektif dan
psikomotor. Dalam segi afektif yang berkaitan dengan minat dan sikap, maka
dalam diri siswa harus tertanam bahwa tawuran itu merupakan sesuatu yang harus
dihindari dan dijauhi serta harus ditingkatkannya pendidikan karakter yang
mendorong siswa untuk selalu berkelakuan baik. Dan dalam segi psikomotor, tawuran
dapat dicegah dengan cara mengembangkan bakat dan kreatifitas siswa sesuai
dengan kemampuan dan keinginan mereka, dan untuk itu harus ada kegiatan
ekstrakurikuler yang menampung dan menunjang bakat mereka. Contohnya, untuk
menampung minat siswa yang senang berkelahi, sekolah bisa membuat suatu
ekstrakurikuler yang bisa mengembangkan minat mereka secara sehat misalnya
eksul silat atau semacamnya. Dan sekolah pun harus bertindak tegas jika ada
siswanya yang melakukan tawuran, sanksi harus sesuai dengan perbuatan yang
mereka lakukan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Selain itu, peran
orang tua juga sangat penting dalam mencegah terjadinya tawuran, orang tua
harus selalu menjaga, menyayangi, memperhatikan dan memantau kegiatan anaknya
sehari-hari, terutama jika sekolah telah usai. Mereka harus senantiasa memantau
kegiatan-kegiatan anaknya di luar rumah, apa saja yang mereka lakukan? Siapa
saja teman-teman mereka dan bagaimana kondisi lingkungan tempat mereka
bermain?, orang tua pun harus selalu menasihati anaknya agar mereka tidak
terjerumus kepada pergaulan yang tidak baik.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">2). Analisis
Video Mengenai Anak Jalanan “Ngelem” (Menghirup Lem)</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Dari sumber yang
telah saya baca (kompasiana.com/post/metro/2012/01/09), <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>kebiasaan anak jalanan ngelem ternyata sudah
ada sejak lama, ngelem ini merupakan kegiatan dimana si penghirup menghirup uap
lem, yang mana kegiatan tersebut <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>membahayakan si penghirupnya, karena dalam lem
terkandung zat-zat yang berbahaya untuk tubuh si penghirup. Sama halnya seperti
narkoba efek ngelem ini dapat membuat si pengguna merasa “fly”, resiko ngelem
yaitu dapat menyerang susunan saraf di otak sehingga dapat menimbulkan
kecanduan dan merusak otak dan yang lebih parah adalah si pengguna bisa mati
mendadak.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Dalam video telihat
dua anak kecil yang sedang ngelem di pinggir jalan, mereka seolah tidak
memperdulikan sekeliling mereka, bahkan mereka malah terlihat senang mereka direkam.
Di tangannya masing-masing mereka menggenggam satu kaleng lem, kadang mereka
menghirup lem tersebut. Menurut saya, faktor yang menyebabkan mereka ngelem
adalah karena banyak faktor. Baik faktor dari dalam diri mereka sendiri ataupun
faktor dari luar diri mereka. Faktor yang paling menonjol adalah faktor
lingkungan, yang mana kebanyakan anak yang ngelem adalah anak-anak jalanan yang
memang pergaulannya sangat bebas. Faktor lain adalah faktor ekonomi yang
menyebabkan kebanyakan anak-anak jalanan tidak sekolah, maka dari itu mereka
tidak mendapatkan pendidikan dan pengetahuan yang memadai yang bisa mencegah
mereka agar mereka tidak melakukan kegiatan ngelem tersebut. Ngelem sangat
berbahaya bagi kesehatan, untuk itu kebiasaan tersebut harus ditanggulangi, dan
yang harus berperan besar dalam menanggulangi masalah tersebut adalah
pemerintah. Sebagaimana tertera dalam UUD 1945 pasal 34 ayat 1 yang berisi
“fakir miskin dan anak terlantar di pelihara oleh negara”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pemerintah dengan dibantu oleh aktivis harus
membuat suatu wadah dimana anak jalanan di tampung dan di beri kegiatan yang <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>lebih bermanfaat, contohnya membuat suatu
sanggar untuk mereka mengembangkan bakat dan minat mereka. Dan harus ada
pendekatan secara emosional dengan anak-anak jalanan tersebut, bukan dengan
cara mengejar-ngejar dan menangkap mereka kemudian mereka dipukuli. Karena
menurut saya, jika kita memperlakukan mereka dengan keras, mereka akan lebih
keras dari kita.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Selain pemerintah
orang tua pun tak kalah penting dalam menanggulangi masalah ini, orang tua
sebagai orang yang paling dekat dengan anak harus selalu menjaga anaknya agar
terhindar dari pergaulan yang tidak baik. Orang tua harus selalu membekali
anaknya dengan nasihat dan ilmu agama yang kuat sedari mereka kecil, karena apa
yang terjadi dimasa depan tidak lepas dari pengalaman dimasa kecil.</span></div>
Mira Nurlatifahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12863922507205527729noreply@blogger.com0